#Invasion of the Ruhr

[whencyclopedia]

The Bombing of Berlin

The bombing of Berlin, aka the Berlin Air Offensive or Battle of Berlin (Air), was a sustained bombing campaign on the German capital by the British Royal Air Force and United States Air Force from November 1943 until March 1944. The objective, which failed, was to bomb Germany into surrender and win WWII without the necessity of land operations.

Area Bombing

The commander-in-chief of the RAF Bomber Command, Arthur Harris (1892-1984), had received backing at the highest level for the night-time area bombing (aka carpet bombing) of German industrial targets and industrial cities. The Royal Air Force (RAF) and United States Army Air Force (USAAF) had already conducted a Combined Bomber Offensive and made repeated attacks on the Ruhr industrial area of Germany (Battle of the Ruhr, March-July 1943) and on Hamburg with the utterly devastating Operation Gomorrah (July-August 1943). Typically, the RAF bombed by night and the USAAF by day in these combined operations. As Winston Churchill (l. 1874-1965), the British prime minister put it:

We shall bomb Germany by day as well as by night in ever-increasing measure, casting upon them month by month a heavier discharge of bombs, and making the German people taste and gulp each month a sharper dose of the miseries they have showered upon mankind.

(Liddell Hart, 189)

By the summer of 1943, the Allied leaders began to shift their focus to a future invasion of Continental Europe. The Allies issued the Pointblank Directive in June 1943, which stated that bombing raids in Europe should prioritise Germany's capacity to produce fighter planes, which could be used against ground troops in the D-Day Normandy landings (Operation Overlord) planned for the following summer. Air supremacy had to be achieved before Overlord could get underway. However, Harris remained sceptical of the possibility of hitting small but strategically important targets like weapons factories. This was in some way born out by the USAAF's Schweinfurt-Regensburg raids. The first Schweinfurt raid in August 1943 had not been very successful in damaging the crucial ball-bearing factories, and many aircraft had been lost in the process. (The USAAF returned to Schweinfurt and was more successful in October). Berlin did have key armaments factories, and these could be knocked out with a wider and more indiscriminate bomb-dropping strategy, Harris thought. Berlin was also an obvious transport hub and, of course, a prestige target, too. Harris believed that the heavy bombing of Berlin could ultimately lead to Germany's surrender and so the Allies might even avoid the necessity of dangerous and time-consuming land operations.

There were some flaws in the plan. Berlin was a much bigger city than those bombed previously and so would take many more raids to damage. Harris knew this, and so he called for a force of 6,000 bombers, but this was never possible; the RAF and USAAF combined only had some 3,000 bomber planes at any one time. Berlin was also well-defended with over 100 anti-aircraft batteries. The historian M. Hastings describes Berlin as "the largest and most heavily defended industrial urban area in Europe" (285). As the historian R. Neillands put it, Berlin "was always a difficult target. It lay a long way into Germany, close to the eastern frontier, and was a very big and very flat city, with few physical features…" (217).

Another problem was that in 1943, Allied fighter planes still did not have sufficient fuel range to escort bombers to targets deep in Germany. Finally, the other bombing campaigns, which included the thousand-bomber raid on Cologne in 1942, had not shattered civilian morale despite causing enormous casualties and damage. This had also been true of the German bombing of British cities and the London Blitz earlier in the war. Even if German civilian morale could be broken, in a totalitarian state built on violence, there was probably not much civilians could do to influence policy change anyway. Despite these pitfalls, the Combined Chiefs of Staff gave Harris the green light, and the bombers were sent to Berlin. Crucially, the USAAF, preferring to pursue its own targets like Germany's oil supplies, would not join the raids until near the end of the campaign. The RAF bomber crews would be on their own in their effort to bomb into submission the city they called "Big B".

Continue reading...

[regina-bithyniae]

Finished The Wages of Destruction.

Solid 9/10.

Core ideas to take away:

work creation was a minor element of Nazi economic policy, a distant secondary concern after rearmament

rearmament had widespread public support in germany

shifting to autarky took extremely hacky and likely long-run unsustainable export controls, and even *export subsidies* because imports were still an inescapably vital input to industrial production in

controlling big business was largely a "soft co-opting" project while the agriculturalists were insane morons who were much more staunchly pro-nazi

once at war, Germany was going for broke from the very beginning and there was near-zero slack they could've squeezed out more war production from

truly pitiful productivity rate from Germany's conquered continental empire - the workers were far far more productive if deported to Germany than working in home countries

German surface navy seems useless, they didn't even have the oil to run the ships, and metal would've been better used elsewhere

Speer was a shit, Tooze hates hates him

bombing campaign actually was successful! specifically taking out the Ruhr

"blitzkrieg" doctrine was developed as they went; original 1940 invasion of France battleplan was to go "right up the center" not through the Ardennes and pre-battle production focused on heavy artillery ammunition

Bigger points: German "Strategy"

Germany escalated from diplomatic crisis to war with Poland/UK/France, and to war with the Soviet Union, and then America, out of a series of perceived closing windows of opportunity. First one was seeing UK/French production overtaking them in rates and catching up on stocks. In 1940 the US fully commits to aiding Britain, creating sense of "the bombers are coming eventually" and need to gain immediate advantage by conquering the Soviet Union.

Bizarrely, German production was focused on the Luftwaffe in preparation for fighting US/UK air war as Germany was getting ready for Barbarossa!

Declaration of war on US pitched as confirming alliance with Japan, but still feels stupid. Germany could just stay quiet and force US to either engineer entry to European conflict another way or stay out. Still seems less stupid, considering this is at a time when Barbarossa is coming apart.

But overall, a sound if massively risky plan assuming you accept the insane basic assumptions. Hitler's strategic vision often gets assumed to be terrible out of disgust for the consequences of his actions and their failure.

I really do wonder what the vibe was among German economic elite from 1942 onwards, it's obvious the war is not winnable, that you're very fucked, and that everyone is coming to kill you.

Anyways, good book and worth reading/listening to. Tooze could've slimmed down on the pre-war stuff. I find him vaguely irritating with how he brings up irrelevant things just to show how smart he is but that's probably just envy.

P.S.

The original Volkswagen was just a massive scam with no actual civilian cars being produced despite taking all the payments for the vehicles. Possibly suggests two dominant strains of conservatism? Former is old aristocratic conservatism of the nobility or classic US elite; latter is the populist oppositional culture right-wingism which is about 64% scam artists.

[mysticstronomy]

WHERE DO COSMIC RAYS COME FROM??

Blog#374

Saturday, February 10th, 2024.

Welcome back,

Earth is under constant bombardment by cosmic rays, showers of high-energy particles that blast our planet from all directions at near light speed.

While this might sound like the precursor to a sci-fi alien invasion, it is a real phenomenon that scientists have been aware of for over a century.

Despite their dramatic description, cosmic rays are actually pretty ordinary — they pass through our planet so regularly that during an average night's sleep, a person will have around a million cosmic rays traveling through their body, according to the University of Birmingham in the U.K.

Despite their ubiquity, cosmic rays still present scientific mysteries. While slow-energy cosmic rays that strike Earth are known to originate from the sun, others with higher energies stream into the solar system from deep space.

The origins of these extrasolar cosmic rays are lesser known, with suspect sources including black holes and the supernova explosions that mark the deaths of massive stars.

Cosmic rays "have been detected here on Earth for more than 100 years now. Yet, their origin remains largely unknown," Julia Tjus, a professor of physics and astronomy at Ruhr University in Germany, told Space.com via email.

"These tiny particles reach energies that go far beyond what we can reach here on Earth. We are trying to solve a riddle that is by now more than 100 years old and put together the pieces slowly but steadily."

Cosmic rays are streams of high-energy particles that hit Earth's atmosphere at near light speed. They were discovered in the 1900s, and the term "cosmic rays" was coined by physicist Robert Millikan in 1925.

Since then, scientists have determined that trillions of cosmic rays hit Earth every day, but the vast majority are blocked by the planet's magnetosphere and atmosphere.

Over 90% of cosmic rays are hydrogen nuclei  ( single protons), 9% are the atomic nuclei of helium, and 1% are the nuclei of heavy elements up to iron, according to the University of Chicago. These are called "hadronic particles" because they are composed of hadrons, like protons and neutrons, which are made up of fundamental particles called quarks.

"There are also electrons and positrons [the antiparticles of electrons] coming to us in cosmic rays but in smaller numbers than the hadronic particles. These are often called cosmic-ray electrons," Tjus said. "Sometimes, people also include the neutral high-energy particles  —  photons and neutrinos  —  in the term cosmic rays, but in most definitions, these are kept separately."

Originally published on www.space.com

COMING UP!!

(Wednesday, February 14th, 2024)

"HOW IS OUR UNIVERSE EXPANDING RAPIDLY??"

[beardedmrbean]

ESSEN, Germany (AP) — For most of this century, Germany racked up one economic success after another, dominating global markets for high-end products like luxury cars and industrial machinery, selling so much to the rest of the world that half the economy ran on exports.

Jobs were plentiful, the government's financial coffers grew as other European countries drowned in debt, and books were written about what other countries could learn from Germany.

No longer. Now, Germany is the world’s worst-performing major developed economy, with both the International Monetary Fund and European Union expecting it to shrink this year.

It follows Russia's invasion of Ukraine and the loss of Moscow's cheap natural gas — an unprecedented shock to Germany’s energy-intensive industries, long the manufacturing powerhouse of Europe.

The sudden underperformance by Europe's largest economy has set off a wave of criticism, handwringing and debate about the way forward.

Germany risks “deindustrialization” as high energy costs and government inaction on other chronic problems threaten to send new factories and high-paying jobs elsewhere, said Christian Kullmann, CEO of major German chemical company Evonik Industries AG.

From his 21st-floor office in the west German town of Essen, Kullmann points out the symbols of earlier success across the historic Ruhr Valley industrial region: smokestacks from metal plants, giant heaps of waste from now-shuttered coal mines, a massive BP oil refinery and Evonik's sprawling chemical production facility.

These days, the former mining region, where coal dust once blackened hanging laundry, is a symbol of the energy transition, dotted with wind turbines and green space.

The loss of cheap Russian natural gas needed to power factories “painfully damaged the business model of the German economy,” Kullmann told The Associated Press. “We’re in a situation where we’re being strongly affected — damaged — by external factors.”

After Russia cut off most of its gas to the European Union, spurring an energy crisis in the 27-nation bloc that had sourced 40% of the fuel from Moscow, the German government asked Evonik to keep its 1960s coal-fired power plant running a few months longer.

The company is shifting away from the plant — whose 40-story smokestack fuels production of plastics and other goods — to two gas-fired generators that can later run on hydrogen amid plans to become carbon neutral by 2030.

One hotly debated solution: a government-funded cap on industrial electricity prices to get the economy through the renewable energy transition.

The proposal from Vice Chancellor Robert Habeck of the Greens Party has faced resistance from Chancellor Olaf Scholz, a Social Democrat, and pro-business coalition partner the Free Democrats. Environmentalists say it would only prolong reliance on fossil fuels.

Kullmann is for it: “It was mistaken political decisions that primarily developed and influenced these high energy costs. And it can’t now be that German industry, German workers should be stuck with the bill.”

The price of gas is roughly double what it was in 2021, hurting companies that need it to keep glass or metal red-hot and molten 24 hours a day to make glass, paper and metal coatings used in buildings and cars.

A second blow came as key trade partner China experiences a slowdown after several decades of strong economic growth.

These outside shocks have exposed cracks in Germany's foundation that were ignored during years of success, including lagging use of digital technology in government and business and a lengthy process to get badly needed renewable energy projects approved.

Other dawning realizations: The money that the government readily had on hand came in part because of delays in investing in roads, the rail network and high-speed internet in rural areas. A 2011 decision to shut down Germany's remaining nuclear power plants has been questioned amid worries about electricity prices and shortages. Companies face a severe shortage of skilled labor, with job openings hitting a record of just under 2 million.

And relying on Russia to reliably supply gas through the Nord Stream pipelines under the Baltic Sea — built under former Chancellor Angela Merkel and since shut off and damaged amid the war — was belatedly conceded by the government to have been a mistake.

Now, clean energy projects are slowed by extensive bureaucracy and not-in-my-backyard resistance. Spacing limits from homes keep annual construction of wind turbines in single digits in the southern Bavarian region.

A 10 billion-euro ($10.68 billion) electrical line bringing wind power from the breezier north to industry in the south has faced costly delays from political resistance to unsightly above-ground towers. Burying the line means completion in 2028 instead of 2022.

Massive clean energy subsidies that the Biden administration is offering to companies investing in the U.S. have evoked envy and alarm that Germany is being left behind.

“We’re seeing a worldwide competition by national governments for the most attractive future technologies — attractive meaning the most profitable, the ones that strengthen growth,” Kullmann said.

He cited Evonik’s decision to build a $220 million production facility for lipids — key ingredients in COVID-19 vaccines — in Lafayette, Indiana. Rapid approvals and up to $150 million in U.S. subsidies made a difference after German officials evinced little interest, he said.

“I'd like to see a little more of that pragmatism ... in Brussels and Berlin,” Kullmann said.

In the meantime, energy-intensive companies are looking to cope with the price shock.

Drewsen Spezialpapiere, which makes passport and stamp paper as well as paper straws that don't de-fizz soft drinks, bought three wind turbines near its mill in northern Germany to cover about a quarter of its external electricity demand as it moves away from natural gas.

Specialty glass company Schott AG, which makes products ranging from stovetops to vaccine bottles to the 39-meter (128-foot) mirror for the Extremely Large Telescope astronomical observatory in Chile, has experimented with substituting emissions-free hydrogen for gas at the plant where it produces glass in tanks as hot as 1,700 degrees Celsius.

It worked — but only on a small scale, with hydrogen supplied by truck. Mass quantities of hydrogen produced with renewable electricity and delivered by pipeline would be needed and don't exist yet.

Scholz has called for the energy transition to take on the “Germany tempo,” the same urgency used to set up four floating natural gas terminals in months to replace lost Russian gas. The liquefied natural gas that comes to the terminals by ship from the U.S., Qatar and elsewhere is much more expensive than Russian pipeline supplies, but the effort showed what Germany can do when it has to.

However, squabbling among the coalition government over the energy price cap and a law barring new gas furnaces has exasperated business leaders.

Evonik's Kullmann dismissed a recent package of government proposals, including tax breaks for investment and a law aimed at reducing bureaucracy, as “a Band-Aid.”

Germany grew complacent during a “golden decade” of economic growth in 2010-2020 based on reforms under Chancellor Gerhard Schroeder in 2003-2005 that lowered labor costs and increased competitiveness, says Holger Schmieding, chief economist at Berenberg bank.

“The perception of Germany's underlying strength may also have contributed to the misguided decisions to exit nuclear energy, ban fracking for natural gas and bet on ample natural gas supplies from Russia,” he said. “Germany is paying the price for its energy policies.”

Schmieding, who once dubbed Germany “the sick man of Europe” in an influential 1998 analysis, thinks that label would be overdone today, considering its low unemployment and strong government finances. That gives Germany room to act — but also lowers the pressure to make changes.

The most important immediate step, Schmieding said, would be to end uncertainty over energy prices, through a price cap to help not just large companies, but smaller ones as well.

Whatever policies are chosen, “it would already be a great help if the government could agree on them fast so that companies know what they are up to and can plan accordingly instead of delaying investment decisions," he said.

[dan6085]

During the early years of World War II, particularly from 1939 to 1940, Britain conducted a series of bombing raids over Germany. However, the scale and intensity of these operations were much smaller compared to the devastation Germany unleashed on the United Kingdom during **The Blitz**. At the onset of the war, British bombing strategies were constrained by several factors, including limited resources, rudimentary bombing technology, and a political and moral reluctance to target civilian populations. Despite these limitations, the Royal Air Force (RAF) carried out notable bombing raids. Below is a list of significant British bombing operations against Germany during 1939 and 1940:

### 1. **September 4, 1939 – The First British Bombing Raid on Germany**

- **Location**: Wilhelmshaven, Cuxhaven, Brunsbüttel (Northern Germany)

- **Details**: A day after Britain declared war on Germany, RAF Bomber Command launched its first attack, targeting German naval installations at Wilhelmshaven and Brunsbüttel. The bombers focused on German warships anchored in the harbor.

- **Impact**: The raid was largely unsuccessful, with most bombs missing their targets. Two British aircraft were shot down. Nevertheless, this marked the beginning of Britain's aerial offensive against Germany.

### 2. **December 18, 1939 – Battle of the Heligoland Bight**

- **Location**: Heligoland Bight (North Sea, near the German coast)

- **Details**: The RAF launched a raid on the naval base at Wilhelmshaven and targeted German warships in the Heligoland Bight. The mission involved 22 Wellington bombers.

- **Impact**: The raid resulted in a significant setback for the RAF. Nine British bombers were shot down by German fighters, and the bomb damage was minimal. This operation led to the RAF reassessing its daylight bombing strategy, shifting toward nighttime raids in the following years.

### 3. **May 10, 1940 – The Bombing of Monchengladbach**

- **Location**: Monchengladbach (Western Germany)

- **Details**: On the day that Germany invaded France and the Low Countries, the RAF carried out its first intentional bombing raid targeting Germany’s industrial and urban infrastructure. Monchengladbach was bombed due to its railway yards, which were crucial for transporting German troops.

- **Impact**: This was the first raid deliberately targeting German industrial areas. Civilian casualties were low, but it signaled a shift in British strategy as the war intensified.

### 4. **May 15-16, 1940 – Bombing of Dortmund**

- **Location**: Dortmund (Western Germany)

- **Details**: Following the German invasion of France and the Low Countries, the RAF targeted the Ruhr, Germany's industrial heartland. The city of Dortmund, an important center of coal production and industrial manufacturing, was the main target of this raid.

- **Impact**: Although the bombing raid was not very effective in disrupting German industry, it marked the beginning of RAF’s strategy to target German industrial infrastructure systematically.

### 5. **May 30, 1940 – Bombing of Hamburg and Bremen**

- **Location**: Hamburg and Bremen (Northern Germany)

- **Details**: As part of the RAF's first major nighttime bombing campaign, both Hamburg and Bremen were targeted in this raid. These cities were major ports and shipbuilding centers.

- **Impact**: The raid caused minor damage but showcased the growing importance of nighttime bombing operations, which were considered safer for British pilots due to the high risk of being shot down during daylight raids.

### 6. **June 2, 1940 – Bombing of the Ruhr Valley**

- **Location**: Ruhr Valley (Western Germany)

- **Details**: The Ruhr Valley, with its extensive industrial production of coal, steel, and armaments, became a consistent target for the RAF. This particular raid marked an intensification of British attacks on industrial areas, as the RAF sought to hinder Germany’s war production capabilities.

- **Impact**: Damage to German infrastructure was still limited at this stage of the war, as British bombers struggled with accuracy and heavy German defenses. However, these early raids laid the groundwork for the future bombing campaigns against the Ruhr.

### 7. **July 19, 1940 – Bombing of Leipzig**

- **Location**: Leipzig (Eastern Germany)

- **Details**: This raid targeted industrial and railway facilities in Leipzig, a key hub for German manufacturing and transportation.

- **Impact**: Although the raid did not cause significant damage, it highlighted the RAF’s gradual shift towards targeting deeper into Germany, despite the risks involved with the long-range missions.

### 8. **August 25-26, 1940 – Bombing of Berlin**

- **Location**: Berlin (German capital)

- **Details**: This was the first RAF bombing raid on Berlin, ordered in retaliation for German bombings of London. The British government initially hesitated to bomb Berlin due to fears of escalating attacks on civilians, but following the German raid on London, the RAF was instructed to hit the German capital.

- **Impact**: The raid caused relatively little damage, but its symbolic significance was immense. Adolf Hitler was enraged by the bombing of Berlin, and it led to a shift in German strategy, with the Luftwaffe intensifying its attacks on British cities during the Blitz. The bombing of Berlin also boosted British morale, showing that the RAF could strike at the heart of Nazi Germany.

### 9. **September 3-4, 1940 – Bombing of the Kiel Canal**

- **Location**: Kiel (Northern Germany)

- **Details**: The Kiel Canal, a crucial waterway for German naval operations, was targeted by the RAF. The raid aimed to disrupt German naval movements between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea.

- **Impact**: The attack caused limited damage, but it demonstrated the British intent to target German naval infrastructure. Kiel would remain a frequent target for RAF bombing missions throughout the war.

### 10. **November 15, 1940 – Bombing of Munich**

- **Location**: Munich (Southern Germany)

- **Details**: Munich, a significant industrial and cultural center and the birthplace of the Nazi Party, was bombed by the RAF. The attack was part of a broader strategy to demoralize Germany and disrupt its industrial output.

- **Impact**: The raid caused minor damage to the city, but it marked the RAF’s expanding reach to cities deeper within Germany, signaling that no region was safe from British air raids.

### 11. **December 16-17, 1940 – Bombing of Mannheim**

- **Location**: Mannheim (Southwestern Germany)

- **Details**: Mannheim, a key industrial city known for its factories producing military equipment, was heavily bombed in one of the first major British nighttime raids. It was one of the early examples of the RAF employing "area bombing" tactics, which would become more common as the war progressed.

- **Impact**: The bombing caused significant damage to the city’s industrial areas, signaling the growing capability of the RAF to carry out effective nighttime raids on German industry.

### Key Considerations During 1939-1940:

- **Moral Hesitations**: Early in the war, the British government was reluctant to engage in the wholesale bombing of civilian areas. The RAF was instructed to focus on military and industrial targets, avoiding civilian casualties whenever possible. This approach would change as the war progressed and German bombings on Britain escalated.

- **Technology and Accuracy**: The RAF faced significant challenges with its early bombing campaigns, particularly in terms of accuracy. British bombers lacked advanced navigational aids, and many bombs missed their targets. As a result, early bombings had limited impact on German infrastructure.

- **Night Bombing Strategy**: By late 1940, the RAF began shifting its focus toward nighttime raids to minimize aircraft losses from German fighters and anti-aircraft defenses. This would eventually evolve into the "area bombing" strategy used later in the war, particularly during the destruction of German cities in 1942 and 1943.

### Conclusion:

From 1939 to 1940, British bombing raids on Germany were relatively limited in scope and effectiveness, but they marked the beginning of a sustained aerial offensive. The RAF’s transition to nighttime bombing and increased targeting of industrial infrastructure in cities like the Ruhr and Berlin laid the groundwork for the more intensive bombing campaigns that would follow later in the war. These early raids also had a symbolic and psychological impact, demonstrating that Germany was not immune to attack from the air.

[rvrfavorites]

Aachen, located in western Germany, as the first German city to be captured by the Allies. #battle Aachen, located in western Germany, holds a significant place in World War II history as the first German city to be captured by the Allies. The Battle of Aachen occurred between October 2 and 21, 1944, with the city falling on October 21. The fighting was intense, with the Allies facing fierce resistance from German forces determined to defend the city. The capture of Aachen was strategically important for the Allies, as it provided a gateway into Germany's industrial heartland, the Ruhr. The battle involved heavy urban combat, and the city's capture demonstrated the Allies' growing capability to penetrate deep into German territory. This victory was part of the larger Allied push towards the Siegfried Line and eventually led to the further invasion of Germany.

[pkgeq1]

Bochum - Dahlhausen

Ein ungesühntes Verbrechen 

Am 14. April 1945, nur vier Tage nach der Befreiung Bochums von den Nazis durch alliierte Truppen, ereignete sich an der ehemaligen Flussbadeanstalt Dahlhausen ein schreckliches Verbrechen. Drei sowjetische Zwangsarbeiter, Kriwouschko, Siwowolos und Prokoscha, wurden von nationalsozialistischen Hitlerjungen erschossen. Bis heute blieben diese Morde ungesühnt. Zum Gedenken an dieses Verbrechen stiftete die Bezirksvertretung Bochum-Südwest im Oktober 2009 ein Mahnmal. 

  

Die Bombardierungen von Bochum-Dahlhausen 

Die Stadt Bochum erlebte während des Zweiten Weltkriegs viele schwere Bombardierungen. Besonders markant war die Nacht zum 2. Juni 1942, als britische Kriegsflugzeuge über Bochum-Dahlhausen von 1:05 Uhr bis 2:40 Uhr insgesamt 15 Sprengbomben, 2000 Stabbrandbomben, 300 Phosphorbrandbomben und eine Kautschukbenzin-Brandbombe abwarfen. Bei diesem Angriff wurden 21 Menschen verletzt. 

Der Verwaltungsbericht der Stadt Bochum für die Jahre 1938 bis 1948 beschreibt diese Angriffe nüchtern: „Die Reihe der planmäßig durchgeführten Großangriffe wurde [...] eröffnet mit einem massierten Bombenabwurf auf den Ortsteil Dahlhausen am 2. Juni 1942. [...] Ein großer Teil der Bochumer Bevölkerung wurde nach jedem Fliegerangriff obdachlos, ein anderer der Kochgelegenheiten beraubt. [...] Die dadurch entstehenden Kosten hatte für jeweils fünf Tage nach jedem Angriff die Feststellungsbehörde zu übernehmen. [...] Die Sorge für die Bestattung der bei den Angriffen ums Leben gekommenen Personen übernahm das Kriegsschädenamt in Zusammenarbeit mit dem städtischen Garten- und Friedhofsamt, die Betreuung der Verwundeten in Gemeinschaft mit dem Gesundheitsamt.” 

Diese sachliche Darstellung verdeckt jedoch die emotionalen und menschlichen Tragödien, die diese Angriffe mit sich brachten. Eine Bochumerin berichtete von einem schweren Angriff im Mai 1943: „Ein Bild des Grauens bot sich mir. Ruinen über Ruinen, die zum Teil noch brannten. Auf den Straßen lagen bis zur Unkenntlichkeit verbrannte Menschen kohlrabenschwarz. [...] Die Menschen hatten das, was sie retten konnten, vor den Trümmern auf den Bürgersteigen aufgestapelt und saßen verzweifelt daneben.“ Solche Szenen wurden zum Alltag des Bombenkriegs in Bochum und vielen anderen Städten im Ruhrgebiet. 

  

Die Schlacht um das Ruhrgebiet 

Bereits zwischen 1940 und 1942 war Bochum mehr als 50-mal Ziel alliierter Luftangriffe. Der erste tödliche Angriff ereignete sich am 16. Mai 1940 in Bochum-Werne. Diese frühen Angriffe galten hauptsächlich Verkehrs- und Industrieanlagen. Die Situation änderte sich jedoch mit der „Battle of the Ruhr“, die im März 1943 mit einem Angriff auf Essen begann. Die Alliierten zielten nun nicht mehr nur auf kriegswirtschaftlich wichtige Ziele, sondern wollten auch die Moral der deutschen Bevölkerung untergraben. 

Ab Mai 1943 beteiligten sich auch amerikanische Bomber an den Angriffen. Bochum erlebte in den Monaten Mai, Juni und September 1943 mehrere Großangriffe, die Hunderte Todesopfer und noch mehr Verletzte forderten. Die Altstadt und Teile der Innenstadt wurden zerstört, zahlreiche Menschen verloren ihr Zuhause und lebten in Trümmern. Laut britischen Schätzungen betrafen die Zerstörungen bis Ende 1943 ein Viertel des gesamten Ruhrgebiets. 

Nach einer kurzen Pause gegen Ende 1943 setzten die Bombardements im August 1944 mit voller Stärke wieder ein, nach der Invasion in der Normandie. Die zweite große „Ruhrschlacht“ begann im Herbst 1944 und forderte allein zwischen Oktober und Dezember etwa 15.000 Todesopfer. Der schwerste Angriff auf Bochum ereignete sich am Abend des 4. November 1944. Laut einem amtlichen Kriegsbericht kamen dabei 1.200 Menschen ums Leben, 300 wurden vermisst, 2.000 verwundet und 70.000 obdachlos. Trotz der Verluste verfehlte das „moral bombing“ sein Ziel; die Zivilbevölkerung rückte in ihrer Not noch enger zusammen. 

  

Die Bombardierung der Möhnetalsperre 

Am 16. und 17. Mai 1943 warfen britische Bomber speziell entwickelte Roll- bzw. Rotationsbomben auf die Möhnesee-Sperrmauer. Ziel war es, die Talsperren im Sauerland zu sprengen, um die Wasserversorgung des Ruhrgebiets zu unterbrechen und die Rüstungsindustrie zu schwächen. Da der Möhne-Stausee vollgefüllt war, ergossen sich die Wassermassen bis ins Ruhrtal und richteten enormen Schaden an. 

Ein Augenzeuge, der anonym bleiben möchte, berichtet von seinen Erlebnissen als Achtjähriger. Nach einer Erholungskur holte ihn seine Mutter vom Bahnhof Bochum ab, und sie fuhren mit der Straßenbahn, Linie 20, nach Oberdahlhausen. Dort angekommen, sahen sie das überflutete Ruhrtal, das sich in einen riesigen, schmutzig grauen See verwandelt hatte. Die Altendorfer Eisenbahnbrücke ragte nur noch mit ihren oberen Teilen aus dem Wasser. Die Mutter erzählte ihm von der Katastrophe, betonte jedoch, dass sie darüber schweigen müssten, da das nationalsozialistische Regime eine solche Niederlage nicht zugeben konnte. 

Infolge der Überschwemmung war das Leitungswasser abgestellt, und die Familie musste einige Tage Wasser aus einem Ziehbrunnen holen. Kurz darauf wurde der Junge mit der Kinderlandverschickung nach Pommern geschickt, um ihn vor den Bombenangriffen zu schützen. Eine andere Augenzeugin berichtet von ertrunkenen Tieren und weggerissenen Gebäuden im Ruhrtal. Die Kassenberger Straße und die Dr.-C.-Otto-Straße waren völlig überflutet, das Postamt stand inmitten der Fluten. 

  

Nachwirkungen und Erinnerungen 

Auch wenn es in Linden-Dahlhausen keine Toten durch die Flut gab, hinterließ das Hochwasser eine Schneise der Verwüstung. Die betroffenen Gebiete kämpften lange mit den Folgen der Zerstörung, und die Ereignisse blieben in der Erinnerung der Überlebenden präsent. Diese persönlichen Berichte und Erinnerungen sind wichtige Zeugnisse der historischen Ereignisse und erinnern uns an die Schrecken und menschlichen Tragödien des Zweiten Weltkriegs. 

Historische Reflexion 

Die Bombenangriffe und ihre Auswirkungen auf Städte wie Bochum sind Teil der Geschichte des Zweiten Weltkriegs. Diese Angriffe führten zu großen menschlichen und materiellen Verlusten. Während wir der deutschen Opfer des Bombenkriegs gedenken, dürfen wir nicht die vielen Städte und Menschen vergessen, die von deutschen Angriffen betroffen waren, wie Guernica, Warschau, London, Coventry, Rotterdam und Leningrad. Der Bombenkrieg zeigt die Grausamkeit und Zerstörung, die der Krieg für alle Beteiligten mit sich brachte, und erinnert uns daran, dass die Erinnerung an die Schrecken des Krieges ein wichtiger Teil der Aufarbeitung und des Gedenkens ist. 

[brookstonalmanac]

Events 9.26 (before 1940)

46 BC – Julius Caesar dedicates a temple to Venus Genetrix, fulfilling a vow he made at the Battle of Pharsalus. 715 – Ragenfrid defeats Theudoald at the Battle of Compiègne. 1087 – William II is crowned King of England, and reigns until 1100. 1212 – The Golden Bull of Sicily is issued to confirm the hereditary royal title in Bohemia for the Přemyslid dynasty. 1345 – Friso-Hollandic Wars: Frisians defeat Holland in the Battle of Warns. 1371 – Serbian–Turkish wars: Ottoman Turks fought against a Serbian army at the Battle of Maritsa. 1423 – Hundred Years' War: A French army defeats the English at the Battle of La Brossinière. 1493 – Pope Alexander VI issues the papal bull Dudum siquidem to the Spanish, extending the grant of new lands he made them in Inter caetera. 1580 – Francis Drake finishes his circumnavigation of the Earth in Plymouth, England. 1687 – Morean War: The Parthenon in Athens, used as a gunpowder depot by the Ottoman garrison, is partially destroyed after being bombarded during the Siege of the Acropolis by Venetian forces. 1688 – The city council of Amsterdam votes to support William of Orange's invasion of England, which became the Glorious Revolution. 1777 – American Revolution: British troops occupy Philadelphia. 1789 – George Washington appoints Thomas Jefferson the first United States Secretary of State. 1799 – War of the 2nd Coalition: French troops defeat Austro-Russian forces, leading to the collapse of Suvorov's campaign. 1810 – A new Act of Succession is adopted by the Riksdag of the Estates, and Jean Baptiste Bernadotte becomes heir to the Swedish throne. 1905 – Albert Einstein publishes the third of his Annus Mirabilis papers, introducing the special theory of relativity. 1907 – Four months after the 1907 Imperial Conference, New Zealand and Newfoundland are promoted from colonies to dominions within the British Empire. 1910 – Indian journalist Swadeshabhimani Ramakrishna Pillai is arrested after publishing criticism of the government of Travancore and is exiled. 1914 – The United States Federal Trade Commission is established by the Federal Trade Commission Act. 1917 – World War I: The Battle of Polygon Wood begins. 1918 – World War I: The Meuse-Argonne Offensive began which would last until the total surrender of German forces. 1923 – The German government accepts the occupation of the Ruhr. 1933 – As gangster Machine Gun Kelly surrenders to the FBI, he shouts out, "Don't shoot, G-Men!", which becomes a nickname for FBI agents. 1934 – The ocean liner RMS Queen Mary is launched. 1936 – Spanish Civil War: Lluis Companys reshuffles the Generalitat de Catalunya, with the marxist POUM and anarcho-syndicalist CNT joining the government.

[ruhrkanalnews]

UNTERNEHMEN SIND WIEDER (ETWAS) OPTIMISTISCHER

Die Energiekosten sorgen für schlechte Stimmung. Wahrscheinlich nicht nur bei den Unternehmen.

Ennepe-Ruhr-Kreis- Schon seit mehr als einem Jahr dauert der Krieg in der Ukraine an. Die Unsicherheiten und Verwerfungen, die die russische Invasion mit sich bringt, belasten die Unternehmen extrem. Gleichwohl konnten viele Betriebe ihre Situation ein Stück weit verbessern. Das geht aus der aktuellen Konjunkturumfrage der Südwestfälischen Industrie- und Handelskammer zu Hagen (SIHK) hervor,…

[xtruss]

Why the Gusty North Sea Could Give Europe an Industrial Edge! Wind Power is Breathing Life into a New Green Economy on Its Coasts

— Leaders | Northern Delights | The Economist | January 05, 2023

Fears about the fate of European industry abound. Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and the ensuing gas crunch have dealt it a cruel blow. basf, the world’s largest chemicals-maker, is shifting production away from its headquarters in Ludwigshafen in Germany. Nearly a quarter of the country’s revered Mittelstand firms are reported to be considering moving part of their operations abroad. And even as energy prices have fallen back, America’s protectionist and subsidy-laden Inflation Reduction Act is feeding fresh worries that industry might be lured away from the old continent.

One unlikely bright spot is the part of Europe with the grimmest weather. As we report this week, a new economy based on renewable energy is taking shape in and around the North Sea. Rather as hydropower fuelled Lancashire’s cotton mills and cheap coal the Ruhr valley’s steel furnaces in the early days of industrialisation, the promise of cheap, abundant wind power is attracting industry and infrastructure to Europe’s northern coasts. If this fledgling economy thrives, it could give the continent a new, greener industrial edge.

The North Sea’s strong winds and relative shallowness together make it a huge basin of potential energy. Thanks to taller and more powerful wind turbines, more efficient undersea cables and other technological advances, it is now increasingly being tapped. A group of nine countries near this body of water has plans to install 260gw of offshore wind power by 2050—nearly five times that produced worldwide today, and enough to power all of the European Union’s nearly 200m households.

All this is breathing life into a new coastal economy. Esbjerg, a town in south-west Denmark that some consider the capital of the North Sea economy, now boasts companies that make equipment to build and maintain wind turbines. Many once supplied the offshore-oil-and-gas industry, but have shifted their attention to greener customers.

Nordic countries are beginning to attract energy-hungry battery plants and data centres. On Germany’s North Sea coast, a plan is afoot to build facilities to turn easier-to-transport ammonia into hydrogen, to fuel factories in nearby industrial parks. Even parts of steelmaking could eventually move north, as hydrogen replaces coal or gas in the manufacturing process.

For this economy to take off, though, Europe will need to focus its energies. A good start would be to cut red tape: getting a permit to build a new wind farm can take ten years, or even longer. Countries bordering the North Sea will need to work together to ensure that the seabed does not become overcrowded with cables and pipes and that infrastructure is looked after. The rise of the new coastal economy could be fiercely resisted in the old industrial heartlands. It will fall to governments to ease the transition.

A Favourable Wind

The pay-off will be handsome. Done right, the North Sea economy could be a model for other parts of the continent, including the Iberian peninsula, with its huge solar potential. Such shifts in its economic geography will not only help Europe achieve its climate ambitions and rebalance its energy mix away from Russia and other autocracies: they could even give rise to the sort of green corporate giants that Europe badly needs. ■

— This article appeared in the Leaders section of the print edition under the headline "Northern Delights"

[theexodvs]

Yeah, keep screaming, “Government debt is not like personal debt!” That totally worked for Germany when France invaded the Ruhr.

[gueststeachingmaterials]

World History

InterWar Period

[warsofasoiaf]

In a previous post you had mentioned how wildly inefficient Nazi Germany was; I therefore have this two part question, How are they able to organize themselves well enough in order to create a military an Air Force at almost completely dominated Europe and second how were they able to set up such a systematic program for the holocaust?

A bit long and a bit disturbing, so I’m going to throw a cut in here just to be on the safe side. Reader beware, seriously. There is a problem in the underlying assumption of this question, because it presumes that an inefficient organization couldn’t do those things, but I do not believe the two are mutually exclusive, nor would it be a paradox. 

German re-armament after the First World War is a long and complicated thing; it wasn’t started under Hitler, it started about when the ink went dry on the treaty.The first thing to remember about Germany in the interwar period was that it had a population significantly higher than France or Germany. Not only was it well-populated, it was a productive country, producing about double the amount of steel that France was producing in 1927, to say nothing about the abysmal production rates of the Soviet Union during the same period. The small Wehrmacht stipulated by the Versailles Treaty was well-funded and well-trained, and that hardened Kaderarmee became the future core of the larger Wehrmacht. The Weimar Republic also had a great number of factions with their own private armies to the point where every faction had their own gang-turned-paramilitary, entities like the SA Brownshirts operated by the Nazis, the Ruhr Red Army operated by the German Communist Party, the Reichsbanner operated by the Social Democratic Party, the Freikorps, etc. These private armies were expected to be folded into the army when that faction seized power.

There were also plenty of fascinating schemes that Germany used to cloak their rearming. Chief among them was a treaty with the Soviet Union, the Treaty of Rapallo, which permitted Germans to train in secret in exchange for technological research that the Soviets desperately needed and help establishing a cadre of general staff officers (Germany long had a tradition of effective staff officers). Other schemes were used to conceal activity, such as using statistical bureaus whose job it was to compile statistics on German industry, while secretly looking at how to convert civilian factories to military production lines. Organizations like the Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule, ostensibly a civilian pilot academy, were used to secretly train military pilots, and “sports clubs” that taught marksmanship were secret training schools for German soldiers. Germany commissioned a grosstraktor, a “heavy tractor” that was meant for high-production farmland that just so happened to have a spot for a 75mm rotating turret purely by coincidence. After that, Hitler began to expand the Reichswehr in stages.

To fund this, there were a few schemes including forcible seizure of property (typically from German Jews), the Volkswagon scheme where Germans paid for cars that were never made, and issuing bonds that the Germans paid for, because as Hitler diverted monies into arms production, consumer goods started to diminish so that the Germans could do little with their money except loan it to the government. However, the most famous of these came from the mind of Hjalmar Schacht, a former Reichsbank president, which was the MEFO bill scheme. The MEFO bill scheme issued promissory notes to arms manufacturers under a front company Metallurgische Forschungsgesellschaft, abbreviated as MEFO. Since these loans didn’t appear on the balance sheet, the central bank gave an illusion of fiscal responsibility that Nazi Germany didn’t actually possess, because if there’s one thing dictators are very good at, it’s producing falsehoods. The scheme started to come undone when the arms manufacturers started to ask when they could redeem the promissory notes. Hitler launched the Anschluss which annexed Austria, seizing reserves of gold and foreign currency, then did the same to Czechoslovakia.

German rearmament after the First World War took advantage of global war fatigue by Great Britain and France. Despite warnings from Nobel Peace Prize recipient Carl van Ossietzky and opponents of appeasement in the western powers, central governments continued not to press Germany on its actions. Some of this was probably due to the strength of the global disarmament movement and war fatigue from the Great War, some of it was likely motivated by anti-communism in the hopes that Germany would counter the Soviet Union, who had long been considered an enemy. Similarly, the Soviet Union assisted German rearmament due to shared foreign policy objectives, hence why they cooperated during the combined Nazi-Soviet invasion of Poland.

Similarly, Nazi success in the early parts of the Second World War had some real luck and bad decisions on the part of their opponents. Blitzkrieg relies on the shock of movement during the breakout at the focal point, the deep penetration of the enemy lines invites disorder, general disarray, and panic, as the rapid pace disrupts the OODA loop. Similarly, the Allies were slow to take air superiority and did almost no CAS early in the war. Once this absence was alleviated, Allied performance was far better.

Now, on to the more horrifying part, about the extermination camps.

Hitler had long been using concentration camps to torture political opponents, the first ones were built immediately after Hitler seized power in 1933, and were expanded to include “undesirable” individuals when Himmler took over the camp administration. The tactic of concentrating populations into areas was not a new one, countries the world over from Spain in Cuba to the Native American reservation in the USA did this, and the Nazis did this with Polish Jews by forcibly containing them within ghettos from the start of the invasion and using them as slave labor.

Aktion T4 was set up after the invasion of Poland, it was a forcible euthanasia program that saw physically and mentally unwell individuals to be exterminated within hospitals. This led into the formation of Einsatzgruppen, who often carried out the killings and were vested with the authority to do so. Even decentralized death squads, however, had problems. Killings were too slow, and the Auschwitz Commandant Rudolf Höss noted that plenty of these men went insane or committed suicide after exterminating so many by shooting, so Himmler came up with the gas chambers, possibly inspired by pesticides (Zyklon B was designed as a pesticide). The rail networks that had been used to concentrate the Jewish populations within ghettos were again used; railroads are very good at bulk transport even if the organization running them is inefficient. Even here, the penchant for dictatorial inefficiency showed. Trains could be shunted to side rails for days at a time.

There’s no great mystery, plenty of dictatorships have both been inefficient and were capable of slaughtering people at an industrial scale. The USSR had difficulty growing food even in agriculturally productive regions, they still were capable of exterminating a lot of people, and did so more than once. Plenty of dictators had countries wracked with corruption that hampered development, they still killed a lot of people.

Thanks for the question, Anon.

SomethingLikeALawyer, Hand of the King

[alexar60]

Les idées folles

Le public le regardait avec un air ahuri comme s’ils ne comprenaient pas ses paroles pourtant sincères. Les gens étaient habitués à écouter les propos d’un vieux mais ce jour, ils découvrirent un jeune curé robuste, calme, appelant à la vie et la paix. Louis aperçut quelques regards méfiants voire jaloux de la part de vieilles femmes acariâtres, il comprit plus tard, qu’elles lui en voulaient d’être en vie et pas leur fils parti et resté définitivement dans les tranchées. Il se sentait seul, se demandant si cela valait la peine de continuer. Surtout qu’il n’a jamais voulu devenir prêtre, obligé de suivre une tradition stupide ancestrale de sa famille noble. Son frère ainé récupérait l’héritage, son second frère entrait dans l’armée en devenant officier après des études à Saint Cyr, le troisième, son cas, finissait sa vie dans la théologie. Après la dernière prière, il remercia ses ouailles qui ne le connaissaient pas encore. Enfin, il pouvait s’occuper de sa passion.

En dehors des messes, il troquait sa soutane pour une tenue plus sportive, parcourant la campagne le plus anonymement possible avec son appareil photo. Il adorait prendre des clichés de paysages, il photographiait la campagne de part en part, profitant pour saluer les pêcheurs, fermiers, laboureurs ou simples piétons comme lui. Quelques paroissiens reconnurent le jeune curé malgré ses airs de reporter en vadrouille. Avec son pantalon de golf, les enfants l’appelèrent le frère Rouletabille, rappelant le héros de Gaston Leroux. Il adorait ce sobriquet comprenant avec lui qu’il était enfin accepté de sa communauté. D’ailleurs, par la suite, il put photographier les habitants de la ville le dimanche après la messe. Il les retrouvait au café en face de l’église à parler reconstruction, dettes de l’Allemagne, occupation de la Ruhr par les français et le retour des petits gars, anciens poilus dont pour certains, il manquait quelques chose : une jambe, un œil, un bras, le sourire, le bonheur, la vie. Il ne savait jamais quoi répondre dès qu’on parlait de la grande guerre car il ne l’avait pas faite à cause de son statut. Toutefois, il ne baissait jamais les yeux au moindre regard méprisant des anciens combattants même s’ils ne lui firent aucun reproche ; il savait qu’ils lui en voulaient.

Il surprit tout le monde en sympathisant avec le chef du parti communiste de la ville. Ils  avaient en commun l’amour du sport, créant chacun une équipe de basket arrivé dans la région avec les soldats américains. Chaque dimanche après-midi, les habitants pouvaient supporter leurs enfants se confrontant dans des rencontres passionnantes sur l’ancien jeu de paume. Louis aimait photographier ces parties de basketball, cherchant à immortaliser ces beaux moments. Cela n’empêchait pas quelques vifs débats sur la vie politico-sociale, la canonisation récente de Jeanne d’Arc ou la grève des cheminots brisée par le gouvernement.

L’histoire pourrait en rester là ; il avait tout pour vivre une petite vie de curé de campagne. Cependant, sa domestique bien que fervente bigote était aussi une sacrée commère. Alors quand elle découvrit dans un tiroir du bureau pendant qu’elle faisait le ménage dans sa chambre, quelques photos d’une jeune femme à moitié nue, elle ne put s’empêcher de le raconter à toutes ses amies et à son mari qui balança l’info durant un apéro au café. La rumeur se répandit comme une trainée de poudre, apportant des doutes en apprenant que la jeune femme était la fille de l’homme le plus riche de la ville, un industriel propriétaire de la laiterie et de la conserverie.

Au cours des messes suivantes, les paroissiens s’amusèrent à les épier, cherchant à surprendre le moment complice, le regard qui se croise durant ses sermons. Il entendit parfois dans son dos des ’sales hypocrites’, voix de femme énervée parce qu’un curé, ça ne doit pas baiser! Au contraire, les hommes l’admirèrent étrangement car la jeune femme était belle et fortement désirable. De temps en temps, on cherchait à le faire boire, mais il ne parlait jamais, se contentant de photographier les habitants pendant leur travail ou prenant la pose. De même les gens n’arrivaient jamais à savoir quand ils se fréquentaient. Les curieux jouant les espions n’arrivaient jamais à les voir entrer ou sortir chez l’un ou l’autre. En fait personne ne savait qu’il existait un passage secret traversant la ville et reliait l’église au château domicile de la demoiselle. « Merci les ancêtres, merci les invasions ! » murmurait-il chaque nuit dans le tunnel à la lumière de sa torche. Et quand il ouvrait la porte, elle était là, tapie contre le mur à l’attendre. Chaque nuit, elle le serrait dans ses bras, puis silencieusement, ils partaient dans sa chambre pour faire l’amour et dormir l’un contre l’autre. Souvent ils se rappelaient leur première rencontre : Elle ne l’avait pas reconnue dans ses habits civils et appareil photographique accroché au cou. Elle l’accosta justifiant quelques questions techniques sur  la photographie. Il prit son portrait. Puis ils continuèrent de se voir prétextant toujours l’art de la photo. Elle avoua ses sentiments durant une confession, le meilleur moment pour dire à un jeune prêtre qu’on est amoureuse de lui. Il était habitué, expliquant à chaque fois que l’idée était saugrenue, il représentait un idéal psychologique pour certaines, un amour chimérique, un fantasme pour les autres. Mais quand elle prononça ses mots, elle toucha son cœur. Il détestait ce métier, il aimait la photographie, il l’aimait elle !

De temps en temps, il utilisait son appareil pour la photographier dans certains moments plus ou moins intimes. Il aimait revoir les images d’elle en train de sourire, avec un air timide, presque gênée. Il aimait se servir de l’une d’elles, celle où elle est en sous-vêtements en train de lire comme marque-pages dans sa bible. Même si cela pouvait choquer, il se moquait de ce pêché.

La rumeur devint officielle quand une servante du château annonça que la belle était enceinte. Il y avait foule pour la messe suivante, tout le monde voulait l’entendre prêts à se moquer : étrange sentiment de raillerie mêlé au plaisir. On voulait voir la bête, le monstre ! En fait, rien n’arriva de particulier car il fit son office comme toujours. Seulement, après la messe, il ne vint pas au café pour discuter. Il ne vint pas non plus au traditionnel match de baskets des jeunes. Il préféra écrire une lettre de démission ainsi qu’une lettre à sa famille pour leur annoncer qu’il quittait la religion afin d’épouser la femme de sa vie. Un an plus tard, après la messe du nouveau curé, les paroissiens se rassemblèrent sur la place de l’église et écoutèrent le vieil Émile réciter un article du journal. C’était sur un curé devenu photographe-reporter. Ce jour-là, les habitants de la ville furent fiers de l’avoir eu comme curé. Il était comme de la famille, en plus il a épousé une fille du coin.

Alex@r660 – octobre 2019

[mostly-history]

We knew what it was like to feel humiliated after a defeat.  Because we lived on the left bank of the Rhine, which was under Allied occupation, between 1919 and 1926 we saw Canadian, British and then French troops – chiefly drawn from the colonies – march past.  These six years of peacetime occupation were long and burdensome.  For Germans, the situation was incomprehensible: enemy troops had not entered the country on the western frontier, there had been no invasion during the war, and now it was the peace treaty, a treaty considered unjust and designed to ruin the country, that brought about foreign occupation.  A period of occupation, even a tranquil one, is hardly likely to strengthen friendship among peoples.  The occupation of the Ruhr from 1923 to 1926 was accompanied by violence and turmoil, and resulted in 121 summary executions and tens of thousands of expulsions, and it led to a general strike – at the instigation of Chancellor Cuno – and the economic collapse of the industrial heart of Germany, bringing on terrifying inflation.  All that, I think, accentuated the Rhinelanders' already very strong prejudice against the French, who had been seen for centuries as troublesome neighbours. The humiliations inflicted by the occupying forces did not escape my notice when I was a child.  I remember that my parents had been forbidden to attend the burial of my grandmother, on the pretext that my father was a reserve officer.  I also recall how we congratulated Father Seelen, who had dared to sing the German national anthem, which was strictly prohibited on the left bank, in full view of the French troops.  Fortunately Father Seelen was a Dutch citizen, and the French could not arrest him.  That is how, as young men, we practised a kind of resistance that was within our capabilities.

Operation Valkyrie: The Plot to Kill Hitler