#azeotrope

[biology-geology-beaches-india]

The scientific research journals of S. Sunkavally. Page 105.

[amanitavirosalt]

azeotropes. my least favorite thing ever

holy shit I hate azeotropes so much

why cant I just. distill the water away from hydrazine

no.

I have to react the hydrazine with sulfuric acid to make hydrazinium sulfate, then I have to separate that out from the water, then I have to react that with sodium hydroxide in alcohol, then filter it out again, then boil off the alcohol. holy shit I hate azeotropes. but they kinda cool though

[vavaclasses]

Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions – Class 12 Chemistry Notes

Introduction:

In Chemistry, solutions are homogeneous mixtures composed of two or more substances. These solutions can be classified as ideal or non-ideal based on how they obey Raoult's Law, which relates the vapor pressure of a solution to the mole fractions of the components.

Ideal Solutions:

Definition:

An ideal solution is one that follows Raoult's Law at all concentrations and temperatures. This means that the interactions between the molecules of the solute and solvent are similar to the interactions present between the molecules of the pure components.

Characteristics of Ideal Solutions:

Raoult’s Law Compliance: Ideal solutions strictly obey Raoult's Law for the entire concentration range.

No Volume Change: When components are mixed, the total volume of the solution equals the sum of the volumes of the individual components. ΔVmixing= 0

No Heat Change: There is no heat absorbed or evolved during mixing. ΔH_mixing = 0

Similar Intermolecular Forces: The forces of attraction between solute-solvent, solvent-solvent, and solute-solute are almost identical.

Examples of Ideal Solutions:

   - Benzene and Toluene

   - n-Hexane and n-Heptane

   - Ethanol and Methanol

Raoult’s Law for Ideal Solutions:

Raoult’s Law states that the partial vapor pressure of each component in an ideal solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction.

P_A = P_A^0 x_A

P_B = P_B^0 x_B

Where:

- P_A and P_B are the partial vapor pressures of components A and B.

- P_A^0 and P_B^0 are the vapor pressures of pure components.

- x_A and x_B are the mole fractions.

The total vapor pressure of the solution is:

P_total = P_A + P_B

Non-Ideal Solutions:

Definition:

A non-ideal solution is one that does not follow Raoult’s Law across all concentrations. In such solutions, the interactions between solute and solvent molecules differ significantly from those within the pure components.

Characteristics of Non-Ideal Solutions:

Deviation from Raoult’s Law: Non-ideal solutions either show a positive or negative deviation from Raoult’s Law.

Volume Change: Mixing leads to a change in volume. ΔVmixing neq 0

Heat Change: Mixing is either exothermic or endothermic, resulting in the evolution or absorption of heat. ΔH_mixing neq 0

Different Intermolecular Forces: The solute-solvent interactions are either weaker or stronger than the original solvent-solvent and solute-solute interactions.

Types of Deviations:

1. Positive Deviation:

Definition: The vapor pressure of the solution is higher than predicted by Raoult's Law.

Reason: Weaker solute-solvent interactions compared to solute-solute and solvent-solvent interactions.

Examples: Ethanol and Acetone, Carbon disulfide (CS₂) and Acetone.

Volume Increase: Volume increases on mixing.

Heat Absorption: Endothermic mixing occurs.

2. Negative Deviation:

  Definition: The vapor pressure of the solution is lower than predicted by Raoult's Law.

Reason: Stronger solute-solvent interactions compared to solute-solute and solvent-solvent

Examples: Acetone and Chloroform, Nitric acid and Water.

Volume Decrease: Volume decreases on mixing.

Heat Evolution: Exothermic mixing occurs.

Azeotropes:

Azeotropes are special mixtures that boil at a constant temperature without changing composition. They can exhibit either a maximum or minimum boiling point.

1. Minimum Boiling Azeotropes: Show positive deviation from Raoult’s Law. Example: Ethanol and Water.

2. Maximum Boiling Azeotropes: Show negative deviation from Raoult’s Law. Example: Hydrochloric acid and Water.

Conclusion:

Ideal and non-ideal solutions represent different behaviors of solutes and solvents upon mixing. While ideal solutions follow Raoult’s Law precisely, non-ideal solutions show deviations due to varying intermolecular forces. Understanding these deviations and their effects on properties like vapor pressure, heat exchange, and volume change is crucial in predicting solution behavior in chemical systems.

[bouquetofgemstones]

I'm trying to find the boiling point of a water + ethyl lactate azeotrope, but the only thing I can find in literature is that they do indeed form an azeotrope. The boiling point simply does not exist.

[drstonetrivia]

Chapter 9 Trivia

The back of Tsukasa's sword here reminds me of fish fins…

The smoke signal is a double-edged sword, you say?

…A double-edged sword like Tsukasa's, perhaps? 🤔

The 4th use of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) mentioned here isn't that obvious since it's not a component of gunpowder, but rather it's involved in the process I described in last week's trivia here:

Wood ash is mostly CaCO3, but mortar can also be used in the niter-bed instead, as Senku's version is also made of CaCO3 (with sand, clay, and lime added).

There's also the 5th usage for sea shells: pretty necklaces!

Tsukasa only hears the second set of explosions (the 3 in quick succession) rather than the first explosion.

Was he out of range? Not much time had passed, and we didn't see Tsukasa sleep, so did he run the whole distance in a day?

Tsukasa cuts off Yuzuriha's ribbon here, but the edge tears rather than slices cleanly, making me think it's not a very sharp knife but a jagged and serrated one.

The "knife" is also his spear from earlier, broken.

Tsukasa dropped his coat somewhere between grabbing Yuzuriha and confronting Senku, as usual.

To cut hair, you generally want the sharpest tools you can find so you can make a clean cut without ripping the hair and causing split ends.

Even using modern razors, tension still needs to be placed on the hair for it to cut properly, which Tsukasa doesn't do here.

As shown earlier, Tsukasa's knife rips rather than cuts, so to do what he does here, he has to saw at the hair.

(I tested this; neither my serrated nor straight-edged knives managed to cut my hair at all. They're also not that sharp, more similar to Tsukasa's than a stylist's.)

If the knife was sharp enough to slice it all off at once, then Yuzuriha holding it like this would probably have made her bleed.

Alcohol can't be purer than ~95.6% because it forms an azeotrope (=a situation where the liquids cannot be separated any further via distillation as their vapor properties are the same), thus Senku is asking for pure alcohol.

This is possible to do with his primitive setup, either by using multiple distillations or a drying agent.

Nital for etching is generally a 1-10 : 100 mixture of nitric acid to ethanol. Any higher than this and it becomes explosive.

Senku is somehow making a 3 : 7 mixture which I'm pretty sure is either impossible or extremely dangerous.

Kohaku doesn't use the Japanese word for three (三, pronounced "san") and instead uses ３, (pronounced "surī") the English version.

I wonder if the reasoning behind this has any future significance…

[leophiee]

Some impressions from me making some nitric acid for the first time; went much better than expected, the distillate seems to be of slightly over azeotropic concentration, while the dilute part from the little NO2 "scrubber" is some single digit percentage. I was really surprised by how little NO2 was produced, as I used a bisulfate in place of sulfuric acid, which requires a higher temperature (where I would expect more of the nitric to decompose). Idk why that happened, but for now I'm just happy that it worked out.

Overall the experiment yielded about 40g of the acid; tho there is almost certainly more left in the distillation flask, I just ran out of time, and thus didn't finish the distillation; maybe a project for later.

[apocky13]

Somethingth draft,

https://chatgpt.com/share/68896c3e-08ec-800a-b24b-9b90820b7ec8

[ajaytiwarimarketresearch]

Latest Comprehensive Propyl Cyanoacetate Production Cost Report by Procurement Resource

Procurement Resource, a leader in procurement intelligence and market research, proudly introduces its latest Propyl Cyanoacetate Production Cost Report. This in-depth report serves as an essential tool for entrepreneurs, investors, and industry stakeholders planning to establish or expand production facilities for Propyl Cyanoacetate (PCA). It offers detailed insights into cost structures, manufacturing technologies, raw material dynamics, and market outlooks to support strategic decision-making.

Propyl Cyanoacetate: A Versatile Organic Intermediate

Propyl Cyanoacetate (C6H9NO2) is a critical organic compound used extensively in pharmaceutical synthesis, organic chemical production, and agrochemical manufacturing. With its dual functionality—cyano and ester groups—PCA acts as a key building block in creating heterocycles, substituted pyridines, and other complex molecules used in drug intermediates and crop protection agents.

Its growing demand in fine chemicals and advanced intermediates has positioned Propyl Cyanoacetate as a high-value specialty chemical across both developed and emerging markets. The compound’s relevance in innovation-driven sectors like pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals has resulted in increased demand and, subsequently, higher focus on optimized production techniques and cost efficiency.

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The Propyl Cyanoacetate Production Cost Report by Procurement Resource delivers a holistic view of the operational and capital expenditures associated with PCA production. It offers detailed breakdowns of raw material requirements, plant infrastructure needs, technical specifications, and economic evaluations tailored to different production scales.

Market Overview:

Global Demand and Consumption Trends

The global PCA market is witnessing a steady uptick in demand, driven by:

Increasing R&D in pharmaceuticals for anti-inflammatory and anticancer compounds

The expansion of agrochemical production in Asia-Pacific and South America

Rising contract manufacturing activities in chemical and life sciences

The report explores consumption patterns by region, with strong demand coming from India, China, Germany, and the United States. These regions benefit from mature pharmaceutical and agrochemical sectors and robust research ecosystems.

Raw Material and Product Pricing Insights

Propyl Cyanoacetate production primarily depends on cyanoacetic acid, n-propanol, and acid catalysts. The report analyzes pricing trends and supply chain stability for these inputs, along with their impact on the overall production cost.

A detailed pricing analysis for PCA across Europe, North America, and Asia-Pacific is included, covering historical prices, regional disparities, and forecasted trends based on market demand and raw material availability.

Technical and Operational Insights:

Manufacturing Process: Esterification Route

The most common commercial method for Propyl Cyanoacetate production involves the esterification of cyanoacetic acid with n-propanol, catalyzed by a strong acid (typically sulfuric acid) under reflux conditions. The reaction is followed by a purification step involving distillation and neutralization to obtain high-purity PCA.

Reaction Overview: Cyanoacetic Acid + n-Propanol → Propyl Cyanoacetate + Water

Step-by-Step Process Description:

Reactant Mixing: Cyanoacetic acid and n-propanol are mixed with a catalytic amount of sulfuric acid.

Heating and Reflux: The mixture is heated to ~100–110°C and maintained under reflux until the esterification is complete.

Water Removal: Water formed during the reaction is continuously removed using azeotropic distillation to drive the reaction forward.

Neutralization: The acid catalyst is neutralized post-reaction with a suitable base.

Purification: The crude PCA is purified by fractional distillation under reduced pressure to obtain a clear, colorless liquid product.

Equipment and Technology Requirements

Depending on the plant scale (lab, pilot, or commercial), the process setup varies from semi-automated batch reactors to continuous flow systems. Key equipment includes:

Stainless steel reactors with reflux condensers

Azeotropic distillation columns

Filtration and neutralization tanks

Vacuum distillation units

Storage tanks and temperature control systems

Infrastructure and Utilities

The report details requirements such as:

Utility setups (steam, cooling water, electricity, vacuum systems)

Safety installations (explosion-proof enclosures, gas leak detectors)

Quality control laboratories

Storage and handling infrastructure for hazardous reagents

Manpower and Skillset Needs

Successful PCA production requires a mix of skilled professionals including:

Chemical engineers and process operators

QA/QC analysts for purity and specification compliance

Maintenance teams for continuous operations and troubleshooting

HSE personnel for safety and environmental adherence

Regulatory and Quality Compliance

Being an intermediate used in pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals, PCA must meet strict purity and safety standards. The report covers:

Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP)

ISO and REACH regulations

Environmental emission controls

Product stability and batch traceability

Financial and Economic Assessment:

Capital Investment Estimates

Initial investment outlays vary based on plant capacity and automation levels. Cost components include:

Land acquisition and site development

Plant and machinery procurement

Construction and utilities setup

Licensing and legal approvals

Operating Cost Breakdown

Recurring operating costs are classified into:

Raw Materials: Cyanoacetic acid (~40-50% of total cost), n-propanol, catalyst

Utilities: Energy, water, solvent recovery

Labor and Administration: Wages, training, compliance

Maintenance and Repairs: Plant upkeep and process equipment servicing

Profitability and ROI Scenarios

The report models multiple ROI projections based on:

Production capacity (small-scale batch vs. continuous large-scale)

Regional product pricing and export demand

Efficiency and yield of the process

Input price fluctuations

Key Financial Metrics Provided:

Gross margins

Annual net profit projections

Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

Cash flow analysis over 5–10 years

Break-Even and Payback Analysis

A robust break-even model is presented, helping businesses:

Determine minimum operational output for profitability

Calculate payback periods under various pricing and cost structures

Evaluate risk under volatile raw material markets

Sustainability Trends and Market Opportunities:

While traditional PCA production is reliant on petro-derived inputs, industry trends are shifting toward greener solvents, bio-based feedstocks, and energy-efficient processes. European regulations and customer sustainability demands are prompting:

Development of biocatalytic esterification routes

Use of renewable alcohols for reduced carbon footprint

Integration with waste heat recovery systems for improved energy efficiency

Emerging players are leveraging these innovations to create low-impact PCA production models, offering a competitive advantage in sustainability-conscious markets.

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[rattanindustriali07]

Rattan Industrial – Premier Distillery Plant Manufacturer Delivering Turnkey Alcohol Production Solutions in India

The demand for high-efficiency, sustainable, and fully automated alcohol production facilities is growing rapidly in India and globally. At the center of this transformation is Rattan Industrial India Pvt. Ltd., a leading distillery plant manufacturer known for its engineering excellence, innovative designs, and turnkey project delivery.

With decades of industry experience and a deep understanding of the distillation process, Rattan Industrial has become a trusted partner for clients looking to set up or modernize ethanol and liquor production plants.

Complete Turnkey Distillery Solutions

As a full-service distillery plant manufacturer, Rattan Industrial offers end-to-end solutions that cover every stage of plant development—from concept to commissioning. Their distillery systems are engineered to optimize yield, ensure product consistency, and meet stringent environmental and safety standards.

Rattan’s core offerings include:

Molasses-based and grain-based distillery plants

Fermentation systems with high conversion efficiency

Distillation columns (multi-pressure, vacuum, and azeotropic)

Evaporation and dehydration units

Effluent treatment systems (ETP/ZLD) for environmental compliance

Steam and boiler systems, utility pipelines, and automation

Each plant is designed for scalability, allowing businesses to expand capacity without interrupting operations.

Expertise Across Multiple Applications

Rattan Industrial’s distillery plants cater to a wide range of alcohol production needs, including:

Ethanol production for fuel blending (biofuel segment)

Extra Neutral Alcohol (ENA) for beverages and pharmaceuticals

Rectified Spirit (RS) for industrial and medicinal use

Country liquor and branded IMFL (Indian Made Foreign Liquor) production

Whether you're setting up a small-scale plant or a large integrated unit, Rattan provides tailored engineering backed by process know-how.

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Custom-Engineered Plants: Every project is designed to meet your raw material availability, production goals, and regulatory needs

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Rattan Industrial isn’t just building plants—they are building the future of alcohol manufacturing in India. By combining world-class engineering with deep process knowledge, they ensure every plant delivers:

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[alramizequipment]

KLEA R410a REFRIGERANT GAS

A modern, non-ozone-depleting, and efficient hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerant blend widely used in air conditioning and heat pump systems

Klea R-410A is a near-azeotropic blend of two HFC refrigerants, R-32 and R-125 (50/50 by weight), developed as a replacement for R-22 in residential and commercial air conditioning systems. It operates at higher pressures than R-22, providing improved energy efficiency and greater cooling capacity. R-410A has zero ozone depletion potential (ODP) but does have a high global warming potential (GWP), making it a transitional solution as the industry moves toward low-GWP alternatives.

Key Properties:

Composition: 50% R-32 / 50% R-125

Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP): 0

Global Warming Potential (GWP): ~2088

Applications: Split AC systems, heat pumps, rooftop units

Lubricant Compatibility: Requires synthetic POE (polyolester) oils

Color: Colorless, non-flammable under normal conditions

[7-hydroxymitragynine]

girls there is a possibility i have fucked up >render a pint of chicken fat a couple days ago >kinda old-fryer smell, impurities settling to the bottom >decide ill clean it >heard you can do that with baking soda and/or salt >warm up the fat and some water in the microwave, bring to low boil on the stove >forgot to add baking soda and salt >dump them in, not sure how much to use, probably use too much >passes sodium bicarbonate through a hotter-than-212 oil (anhydrous) >remembers what happens when you add strong bases to fats >ohshitdidijustmakesoap.jpg anyways im still boiling it to see what happens. its slightly emulsified but i wonder if i can boil off the water at this point or if its formed some kind of azeotrope. we shall see if i accidentally made chicken soap

[mycoolmain]

im afraid of azeotropes

[ao3feed-arcane]

azeotrope

by lateralparallel In murky Bilgewater, Jinx tries to etch out a life for herself, far away from Zaun where she'll only cause Ekko and Vi more trouble. Unfortunately for her, Ekko doesn't agree — and he's determined to bring her home. (“You’re supposed to be saving Zaun, mister.” Unbidden, Ekko’s fingers go to tug on his earring. “I’ve been saving Zaun since I was ten.” “From me, you mean,” she says. “No,” Ekko answers her, “no. Not you, Jinx.”) Words: 6012, Chapters: 1/1, Language: English Series: Part 2 of timebomb week 2025 Fandoms: Arcane: League of Legends (Cartoon 2021) Rating: Explicit Warnings: No Archive Warnings Apply Categories: F/M Characters: Jinx (League of Legends), Ekko (League of Legends) Relationships: Ekko/Jinx (League of Legends) Additional Tags: Post-Canon, Bilgewater (League of Legends), Jinx Needs a Hug (League of Legends), Intercrural Sex, Wet & Messy, Porn with Feelings, Reconciliation, Fighting As Foreplay, Dirty Talk, Jinx Has a Praise Kink (League of Legends), Humor, Written for Timebomb Week 2025, Prompt - Beach Day, Banter, Fluff read it on AO3 at https://ift.tt/EA39MjQ

[melssblog]

Why is cleaning needed

Harmful contaminants such as solder and adhesive residues, flux, and dust and debris from other manufacturing processes and handling are often formed during the course of electronics manufacture, and the primary purpose of cleaning is to remove these contaminants at regular intervals. This ultimately leads to increased lifetime of the electronic product by ensuring good surface resistance and by preventing current leakage due to PCB failure.

With the constantly evolving cleaning market to meet the demands of the ever-expanding electronics industry, it is of paramount importance that the level of cleanliness required be clearly defined. A correct method must then be used to ensure that the level of cleanliness achieved meets the standard specified by the electronics engineer.

When to perform cleaning

There are many stages where cleaning is required:

Before stencilling and soldering to remove contaminants from the previous production stages

After stencilling to remove excess solder/adhesive

After soldering to remove corrosive flux residues and any excess solder

How is cleaning performed

Precise application of solder is often achieved using a stainless steel stencil over the printed circuit board. Once the circuit design has been finalised, it is mostly purchased as a set of a stencil and many PCBs (a single stencil can be used on thousands of PCBs). The solder is applied on the stencil through which it flows precisely onto the PCB below.

The ultimate goal of cleaning is to remove unwanted residue from the surface and under components. This is achieved by considering selection of components, board material compatibility, placement and defining solder mask in the Design Phase. The cleaning agent must be according to the solder alloy and flux composition with proper heat exposure. The Cleaning Agent must be selected with reuse, environmental, temperature, use rate and Health and Safety considerations in mind. Any Cleaning Machine used must perform proper fluid management, give a good throughput and consume less energy.

Types of cleaning in electronics manufacturing

Proper cleaning can be categorised into PCB Cleaning, Stencil Cleaning and Maintenance Cleaning.

PCB cleaning This can be further categorised into inline and batch aqueous sprays for in-air cleaning, ultrasonic and batch immersion cleaning, manual PCB and benchtop cleaning and vapour degreasing.

While inline washers use high flow, energy and deflective forces, batch cleaning machines are designed to wash, rinse and dry assemblies of smaller footprint. In ultrasonic and batch immersion cleaning, the product being washed is completely immersed in the cleaning agent using either ultrasonic energy or spray-under-immersion forces. Manual PCB and benchtop cleaning is required in rework and repairs to production assemblies and after hand placement of BGAs, connectors or other surface mount components and this is achieved by using an aerosol can or a pump dispenser and ensuring the right cleaning chemistry. In vapour degreasing, the engineered cleaning fluid is a blend of solvents which behave like an azeotrope to produce a constant boiling system at a specific temperature range.

Stencil cleaning

According to some estimates, up to 70% of solder defects are attributed to the stencil printing process. Stencil cleaning is categorised into under-stencil wiping to remove soils, ultrasonic cleaning to remove trace levels of solder paste from stencil openings, solvent-based cleaning to clean wet solder paste, adhesives and flux residues from stencils, mis-printed PCBs, wave soldering pallets, tools and fixtures, spray-in-air aqueous wash/rinse to rapidly dissolve the solder paste, hand-held stencil cleaning to remove trace levels of solder paste from the apertures, and misprint cleaning to address misprints due to issues such as clogged apertures, stencil out of alignment and solder paste rheology shifts.

Maintenance cleaning

MELSS brings you cleaning solutions from KYZEN, the global leader in advanced electronics assembly cleaning technologies, who develop and deliver electronics manufacturing cleaning products and services for improved reliability, constantly innovating to match the changing requirements of the electronics industry.

[wurds-fur-nurds]

Felicitazotropibility (noun) / fəˌlisɪtəˌzoʊˌtrəˈbɪlɪti /

The quality or state of being both felicitous and harmoniously adaptable in the presence of conflicting tendencies, especially in relation to achieving balance within complex systems or relationships.

The capacity to willfully navigate and resolve azeotropic dilemmas—situations where two or more elements are inseparably intertwined—while fostering mutual benefit and satisfaction.

Example: "Her felicitazotropibility in mediating the dispute left both parties not only content but aligned in their future goals."

[petrochemicalscience]

Experimental Measurement and Thermodynamic Modelling of Vapor-Liquid Equilibria Correlations for Prediction Azeotropic Behavior and Fitting Multicomponent Mixtures Data_Crimson Publishers

Abstract:

In this study, isobaric vapor-liquid equilibrium for two ternary systems: "1-Propanol-Hexane-Benzene” and its binaries "1-Propanol-Hexane, Hexane-Benzene and 1-Propanol-Benzene” and the other ternary system is "Toluene-Cyclohexane-iso-Octane (2,2,4-Trimethyl-Pentane)” and its binaries "Toluene-Cyclohexane, Cyclohexane-iso-Octane and Toluene-iso-Octane” have been measured at 101.325KPa. The measurements were made in re-circulating equilibrium still with circulation of both the vapor and liquid phases. The ternary system "1-Propanol-Hexane-Benzene” which contains polar compound (1-Propanol) and the two binary systems "1-Propanol-Hexane and 1-Propanol-Benzene” form a minimum azeotrope, the other ternary system and the other binary systems do not form azeotrope.

Correlation equations for expressing the boiling temperature as direct function of liquid composition have been tested successfully and applied for predicting azeotropic behavior of multi component mixtures and the kind of azeotrope (minimum, maximum and saddle type) using modified correlation of Gibbs-Konovalov theorem. Also, the binary and ternary azeotropic point has been detected experimentally using graphical determination on the basis of experimental binary and ternary vapor-liquid equilibrium data.

All the data passed successfully the test for thermodynamic consistency using McDermott-Ellis test method [1]. The maximum likelihood principle is developed for the determination of correlations parameters from binary and ternary vapor-liquid experimental data which provides a mathematical and computational guarantee of global optimality in parameters estimation for the case where all the measured variables are subject to errors and the non ideality of both vapor and liquid phases for the experimental data for the ternary and binary systems have been accounted. The agreement between prediction and experimental data is good. The exact value should be determined experimentally by exploring the concentration region indicated by the computed values.

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