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How ideological differences lead to the Berlin wall

Following WWII, tensions between the USSR and the Western allies (USA, Britain, and France) rose due to the fundamental differences in Communism and Capitalism. This division became known as the Iron Curtain following Winston Churchill’s speech in 1936 in which he said that due to the tensions between the two sides (Capitalist West and Communist East), "iron curtain" has descended across the continent. The Berlin wall became the infamous physical symbol of the deep divide and oppression under the Communist regime in Eastern Europe, but why was it built and why did it fall?

International relations: historical context of Russia and the West

Russia and the West – America and Britain- have had a pretty complicated relationship for a very long time, and this section aims to give the modern historical background of it (1917 up to 1945).

Russia joined WWI in 1914, one of its allies being Britain. The was crippled Russia’s economy: over 17 million farmers were conscripted into the army meaning there were food shortages; factories that didn’t directly contribute to the war effort by making weapons or equipment suffered from under supplying and many had to shut down, leading to further unemployment; and to top it all off the Tsar at the time- Nicholas II -took a personal control of the army despite having no military experience. By 1917, the Russian population was desperate to leave the war, having already lost about 40 million men.

As discontent with the Tsarist regime and continuation in the war grew, support for Lenin and the Bolshevik party also grew. Sure enough, when they came to power in 1917, they issued the Peace Decree which promised an end to the war. After signing the Treaty of Brest- Litovsk in March 1918 (which had deeply detrimental terms for Russia, such as losing 50% of its industry), Russia was out of the war. By abandoning their allies, Russia made the West think communists could not be trusted.

In the years following this, Russia went into civil war. The war was mostly between the Reds (Bolsheviks) and Whites (Mensheviks and other anti-Bolsheviks). The western capitalist countries supported the Whites financially and by sending troops, and although the reason for this wasn’t necessarily because they wanted the Whites to win, but because they didn’t want the Bolsheviks to win, the Reds used the foreign interventions in their anti- white propaganda.

After the Bolsheviks fully established their rule, the western capitalist countries were always seen as enemies that had gone against them in the past and were ready to intervene in national issues if it meant preventing the establishment of communism.

During WWII, USSR, Britain and the United States put aside their ideological differences in order to unite in defeating Nazi Germany. Russia has joined the western allies after in 1941 Hitler broke a non- aggression pact with Stalin by invading the USSR.

Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam

The Big Three, as they became known, met in Tehran, Iran in 1943. Stalin (leader of the USSR), Roosevelt (US president), and Churchill (UK prime minister) had the common aim of improving their relationship with one another and their countries. During that meeting they decided on the opening on the second front- which meant that Britain and America would now open a front at the west of Germany, so Russia doesn’t have to do all the fighting on the Eastern front. This was a turning point in defeating the Germans as it meant their army was now divided.

Although the conference was successful, it did highlight some tensions already: Churchill was very anti-communist and Britain had joined the World War on the 3rd of September 1939 after Poland was invaded by Germany; Stalin wanted complete control over Poland so he can create a ‘buffer zone’ (the countries between the capitalist west and Russia would have to be invaded before Russia would be, giving the Russians more time to react), and was also very distrustful of Britain and the US as he felt their purposely delayed opening the western front. Stalin thought that they had waited so long so Russia would be weakened after fighting Germany for so long, and once the western front was opened, Britain and America could invade Germany and get to Russia next. The reason Stalin was so worried about getting invaded from Germany is because it happened twice already: in 1914 and then again in 1941 when Hitler broke the non-aggression pact he had made with Stalin.

Potsdam conference 1945

The Big Three then had a second meeting- Potsdam February 1945. At this point it was obvious that Germany was going to lose, so the plans surrounded what happens after that point. Among other things, a decision was made that the USSR would have a sphere of influence in Eastern Europe- although exactly what that entails differs depending on which side you asked. The most relevant, in relation to the future of Berlin, decision they made at this conference was to divide Germany in 4 sections following the war. Britain, France, America and Russia would all get one section. Despite being entirely in the Eastern side of Germany, the capital city of Berlin was also divided in this way- with the west 3 sections belonging to the western allies and the east one to the USSR.

Potsdam was the final conference, attended by Stalin, Harry Truman and Clement Atlee. President Roosevelt had died and been replaced by Truman, who was more anti-communist; Churchill had lost the general election and been replaced by Atlee. Despite the shift in leaders, the decision about splitting Germany and Berlin into four was confirmed. After 1933 there had been no free elections in Germany and the Big Three had decided to re-establish them along with democracy, freedom of speech and freedom of press. The Nazi party was banned, and Nazi war criminals were tried. Russia would receive reparations on the form of goods from the Western sectors.

The Berlin Blockade 1948-1949 and establishing of two separate countries

Having been invaded by it twice in the past, Russia wanted to keep Germany to prevent any future threat. The Allies (Britain, France and America) wanted to make it independent and prosperous so they don’t have to keep paying for it, and so they can build trade with Germany. This disagreement was bound to cause conflict.

In 1947, Britain and America joined their sectors to form Bizonia, and due to the very good relations with the French zones, they united with them too forming Trizonia. In Trizonia they decided to introduce a new, trustworthy currency called the Deutsche Mark which was essential if they wanted to rebuild the German economy. This worried Stalin and he retaliated by introducing the Ost Mark in the eastern sectors.

The western sectors of Germany and Berlin were accepting Marshall Aid (American support to help countries rebuild themselves after the war), while the eastern sectors, and eastern Europe apart from Yugoslavia) did not, which deepened the divide between the east and west even more due to their economical states and standards of living.

As Stalin feared western capitalist ideas and currency entering the eastern part of Germany or Berlin, he cut off all rail, road and canal links. This was with the aim that the west would be forced to give up on western Berlin as they wouldn’t be able to get any supplies to their people.

However, Truman saw this was a testing case – he wanted to prove to Stalin that we would not give up and he would maintain his policy of containment (stopping the spread of communism). The allies, the US in particular, started the Berlin airlift to supply western Berliners with necessities. The airlift code-named “operation vittles” had its first flight on the 26th of June 1948 and lasted until 30th September 1949 – even though the blockade was lifted in May of the same year.

The airlift was incredibly successful as both achieving its aim of supplying the citizens- for example on the 16th of April 1949, 1400 flights brought in 13k tons of supplies, even though the necessary amount needed for the western Berliners to over was 6k tons a day- but also at showing the USSR they wouldn’t give up on their citizens. Truman wanted western Berlin to be a symbol of freedom behind the iron curtain.

Straight after the Berlin blockade was lifted, the western sectors officially united as one country – The Federal Republic of Germany. In October of 1949, the eastern part of Germany became the German Democratic Republic (ironically enough).

The wall goes up

East and West Berlin had been very different. The west was extremely prosperous thanks to the allies investing in it, whereas the East was poor and had low living standards. This resulted in immigration from the East to the West- with over 3.5 million East Germans emigrating to West Germany before 1961, which comprised most of the total net emigration of 4.0 million emigrants from all of Central and Eastern Europe between 1950 and 1959.

On 13th of August 1961, the communist government of the German Democratic Republic started putting up barbed wire fences along the border of West and East Berlin. It was quickly replaced by a concrete one and through the years,more and more was added to it such as watch towers. The 27-mile portion of the barrier separating Berlin into east and west consisted of two concrete walls between which was a “death strip” up to 160 yards wide that contained hundreds of watchtowers, miles of anti-vehicle trenches, guard dog runs, floodlights and trip-wire machine guns.

Hundreds of people tried to go into West Berlin and hundreds died trying to do so. Amongs the people who escaped successfully are the three Bethke brothers, whose escapes are like from an action movie. The oldest of the three, Ingo, escaped by floating on an inflatable mattress across the Elbe River in 1975. Then in 1983, the middle brother, Holger soared over the wall on a steel cable he fired with a bow and arrow to a rooftop in West Berlin. Six years later, they both flew an ultra-light plane over the wall and back to pick up their youngest brother Egbert.

The American view of the wall is nicely summarized by my President Kennedy in 1961: “It’s not a very nice solution, but a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war. This is the end of the Berlin crisis. The other side panicked—not we. We’re going to do nothing now because there is no alternative except war”. The wall was used to show how bad communism is- they had to build a wall to keep people from leaving, which gave it a similar image to a prison. It became a symbol of the division in Berlin, and in Europe at the time.

Accidental freedom

Although it came after years of discontent and protests, the fall of the Berlin wall was accidental. East Germany had decided that its citizens can emigrate for a short period of time, after having gone through a lengthy visa process.

Then on the 9th of November 1989, a press conference took place at which East German politburo member Günter Schabowski prematurely announced that restrictions on travel visas would be lifted. People attending started questioning him and when asked when this new policy would take power he responded with: “Immediately, without delay.”

His confused answers and the erroneous media reports that followed, sent a wave of people to the Berlin wall ready to cross it.

The chief officer on duty at Bornholmer Street checkpoint, overwhelmed by the thousands of people and by the insults rather than instructions he received from his superiors, opened the border crossing and the gates soon followed. The flood of East Berliners couldn’t be stopped by the officials.

The symbolism of the fall

For decades the wall symbolized the division ideologies can make. Because of the differences between capitalist and communist way of rule, and the difference in priorities and values they had, the people of Berlin were entirely separated. Eastern Berliners grew up being restricted and isolated while the West being prosperous and having opportunities. The fall of the wall symbolized the fall of the division, or at least to a point in which people weren’t physically restricted, or risked losing their life if they tried to escape.

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