#firstworldwar

[whencyclopedia]

Europe Transformed

In the span of just 35 years, from 1914 to 1949, Europe underwent a profound transformation. The era was marked by World War I, the collapse of empires, and the rise of powerful ideologies like fascism and communism. This period, which culminated in World War II and the subsequent rebuilding of Europe, reshaped the continent's borders and political structures, laying the groundwork for the modern Europe we know today. One surprising aspect is how these events, driven by both war and ideological shifts, created the foundation for contemporary Europe's political landscape.

Key Facts

First World War (1914-1918): Led to the collapse of empires such as the Austro-Hungarian and German Empires.

Between the Wars: Saw the rise of fascist Italy under Mussolini and Nazi Germany under Hitler.

Second World War (1939-1945): Involved a global conflict with far-reaching consequences, including the formation of the United Nations.

Post-War Era (1945-1949): Began with the division of Europe into Eastern and Western blocs during the Cold War.

Historical Context

The period between 1914 and 1949 was pivotal for Europe as it transitioned from a continent dominated by traditional empires to one where new ideologies held sway. The aftermath of World War I created a power vacuum that allowed fascist and communist regimes to flourish.

Historical Significance

The events of this era set the stage for modern Europe by establishing the political and geographical structures that still influence the continent today. The formation of the European Union, for instance, was partly a response to the devastating effects of conflict in this period, as nations sought to promote peace through cooperation.

Learn More: Europe 1914–1949: History Maps of the World Wars

[flowersonya]

🇷🇺: Привет! Изначально я хотела выложить это видео 11 ноября, но по техническим причинам оно выходит сегодня. Это моя первая попытка в создании подобных MV и я рада, что наконец-то могу вам ее показать. Здесь мне пришлось использовать свой упрощенный стиль, но я считаю, что все равно выглядит хорошо.

Song by Sabaton

Art/Video by Flower Sonya (me)

Used programs: Paint Tool Sai 2, After Effects, CapCut

При создании видео использовался отрывок из реальной кинохроники Первой мировой войны, взят он был отсюда: https://youtu.be/vaE6SH-_snE?si=qS5l5ivzF7BbjGRj

🇬🇧: Hello! I originally wanted to post this video on November 11th, but due to technical reasons it's being released today. This is my first attempt at creating such MVs and I'm glad I can finally show it to you. I had to use my simple style here, but I think it still looks good.

Song by Sabaton

Art/Video by Flower Sonya (me)

Used programs: Paint Tool Sai 2, After Effects, CapCut

When creating the video, I used a fragment from a real World War I newreel, it was taken from here: https://youtu.be/vaE6SH-_snE?si=qS5l5ivzF7BbjGRj

[thegoverness21]

Coca cola had a partnership with the red cross in 1917 insinuating that coke was helpful to the war effort

[destinationsjourney]

Fokker V.8

The Fokker V.8 was five-winged fighter designed for the Imperial German Air Service in World War One. Following the success of the Fokker Dr. I triplane, Fokker reasoned that five wings would be even better. The fighter was designed with three wings at the front of the fuselage and a further two behind the cockpit.

Fokker himself took the quintuplane on two brief flights after which the project was abandoned.

More photos here.

[whencyclopedia]

U-Boat: Germany's Submarines of WWI & WWII

The U-boat, short for Unterseeboot (undersea boat), was the name for submarines used by the German Navy during the First World War (1914-18) and Second World War (1939-45). In the two Battles of the Atlantic, U-boats sank thousands of ships, but defensive strategies such as dropping depth charges, providing air cover, and, above all, the convoy system, ensured Britain was supplied with the resources it needed to continue both wars until victory was achieved on land.

U-Boats in WWI

When WWI began in 1914, the German Imperial Navy had only 20 operational submarines or Unterseeboots (undersea boats), as they were known, a name soon shortened to U-boat. Together, Britain and France had around 200 submarines. German production went into overdrive to catch up. The German navy constructed several classes of submarines to meet different requirements, such as coastal patrols, laying mines, and long-distance vessels. By 1917, Germany had 140 U-boats. While the British Admiralty focused on smaller submarines for the defence of ports, Germany opted for a vessel that could attack enemy shipping anywhere at sea. U-boats became particularly important following the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 (a strategic victory for the Royal Navy, but one with high losses), after which the giant German battleships were largely confined to port. U-boats, on the other hand, were free to roam hidden beneath the waves and attack at will any enemy target they came across in the North Sea, Atlantic Ocean, and the coastal waters of the British Isles.

The earliest U-boats, the UB class, were limited to coastal operations, but developments improved their operational capacity as the war wore on. The typical WWI U-boat had a range capable of reaching the Western Atlantic Ocean, a top speed of 17 knots, and displaced around 700 tons. U-boats carried six torpedoes. Two torpedoes could be fired from the bow and two from the stern. The submarine also had a gun which could be fired when on the surface; this had a minimum calibre of 4.1 inches (10.4 mm). A diesel engine was used when on the surface, and twin electric engines when submerged. The crew on board numbered up to 39 persons. Conditions on board were extremely cramped and uncomfortable, and made worse by the constant stench of diesel fuel, which even permeated the taste of the submariner's food.

The German Navy built a larger class of U-boats, which was unarmed but capable of carrying cargo. The Deutschland was the first of this type, put in service in 1916. Some of these cargo submarines were subsequently converted into armed vessels known as U-cruisers, although the first were not operational until 1918. The U-cruisers had an impressive range of 12,000 nautical miles, and they could well have turned the tide of the war if they had been produced earlier and in larger numbers.

The UC-class submarines were used as minelayers from 1915. With a slow speed of six knots and a limited range of 750 nautical miles, these vessels were designed to stay near coastlines and lay mines, 12 per trip. The mines were released from near-vertical tubes that had been flooded. An upgrade to the class in 1916 increased the range tenfold and the mine load to 18. The UC II class was also armed with a 3.4-inch (8.8 cm) gun. The UE-class submarine was a larger, ocean-going version of the UC-class. The UE-boats, in service from 1915, could voyage 8,000 nautical miles and carry 34 mines. A class upgrade in 1918 meant the newer UE-boats could carry 42 mines in their tubes and another 30 in deck containers.

Read More

⇒ U-Boat: Germany's Submarines of WWI & WWII

[whencyclopedia]

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed on 3 March 1918, outlined the harsh conditions under which the crumbling Russian Empire withdrew from the First World War (1914-18). Negotiated by Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924), the leader of Soviet Russia after the Russian Revolution of 1917, and the German Kaiser Wilhelm II (reign 1888-1918) and his Central Powers allies, the treaty stripped away most of the non-Russian territories that the tsars had conquered in the previous 200 years.

The decision to accept the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk split the Communist hierarchy in Russia and led to the outraged Allies supporting the monarchists in the Russian Civil War (1917-22). Nevertheless, Lenin remained adamant that the agreement, no matter its harshness, was necessary to preserve the achievements of the Bolshevik Revolution and to buy time for further worker-led revolutions to occur in Western Europe, a hope that was never realised.

Russia's Catastrophic War

Tsar Nicholas II (reign 1884-1917) ruled the Russian Empire as an absolute monarch. Already unpopular because of his unwillingness to reform Russia's political system and economy, the tsar only just survived the Russian Revolution of 1905. When Russia entered the First World War, things immediately went badly due to a poorly trained and equipped army and navy. WWI was fought between the Allies (Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and the United States) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria). Russia joined the Allies.

Russian imperial armies faced Germany on two fronts and Austria-Hungary on four fronts. Calamitous defeats included the Battle of Tannenburg in August 1914 and the First Battle of the Masurian Lakes the following September. The Russian army lost 1.2 million men in the first five months of the war. Nicholas had been reluctant to enter the conflict, but he made things far worse when he assumed the role of commander-in-chief in September 1915. Some gains were made against the Austro-Hungarian armies in September 1916 (the Brusilov Offensive), but casualties reached over one million men. Discipline was poor, and some soldiers supported the Communist revolutionaries, who launched an attack on the state in March 1917. The war severely disrupted the Russian agricultural sector and economy in general; food shortages were a particular problem. Indeed, the Bolshevik Revolution was kicked off by bread riots in Petrograd (St. Petersburg). Desertions were so high in the army that it was no longer an effective fighting force in many areas. As Vladimir Lenin memorably remarked, the soldiers had "voted for peace with their feet" (Keegan, 342).

The unrest and poor state of the army led to Russia's high command persuading Nicholas that the best thing to do was to abdicate. Following the abdication in March, a Provisional Government was established, but this was overthrown by the Bolshevik Revolution of October 1917, which established a new republic, Soviet Russia. The new leader was the Bolshevik Communist Vladimir Lenin, and he was determined to withdraw Russia from WWI. Indeed, the Bolsheviks had always protested Russia's involvement in the conflict, and it was one of the main sources of dissatisfaction with the tsar's rule. In addition, Lenin considered an armistice essential to preserving the Bolsheviks' rather loose grip on power. Lenin had brutally commented that the Russian "bourgeoisie has to be throttled and for that we need both hands free" (Beevor, 148). The return of what was left of the army would be a very useful tool in an anticipated civil war against Bolshevik rule. Lenin outlined his motivations to the Communist Central Committee on 9 January:

Undoubtedly the peace that we are currently compelled to conclude is an obscene peace; but if war begins, our government will be swept aside and peace will be concluded by another government…Those who stand on the side of revolutionary war point out that by this very step we will be engaged in a civil war with German imperialism and that thereby we'll awaken revolution in Germany. But look! Germany is only pregnant with revolution, and a completely healthy baby has been born to us: the baby that is the socialist republic, which we shall be killing if we begin a war.

(Service, 339)

Negotiations began with the Central Powers in December 1918, Lenin having secured a temporary armistice on 15 December 1917. The question now was what terms would Russia have to accept in order to fully withdraw from the conflict. Lenin wanted a general armistice, but this idea was rejected by the Allies. Instead, Lenin next sought to negotiate with Germany alone. Kaiser Wilhelm was delighted to eliminate his Eastern Front and so be able to concentrate his armed forces in the terrible war of attrition on the Western Front.

Read More

⇒ Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

[whencyclopedia]

The Causes of WWI

The origins of the First World War (1914-18) are many and varied, with some even dating back several decades, but a political assassination in the Balkans in the summer of 1914 was the spark that blew up Europe's political powder keg, that is, the highly volatile mix of imperialistic governments, rising nationalism, and the obligations of a complex web of international alliances that characterised European diplomacy in the early 20th century.

The consensus of most historians today is that WWI was not started by a single nation, but that the coming of war was, in the end, the collective responsibility of all parties involved, that is the pre-war Triple Alliance of Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary and the Triple Entente (aka the Allies) of Great Britain, France, and Russia. Other states that joined the conflict at various stages include Belgium, Japan, the Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, Greece, Portugal, and the United States, as well as colonies of the various European powers in Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. The first global war, the first wholly mechanised war, and the first arrival of total war, this dreadful conflict ended in 1918 and claimed over 8 million lives.

The main causes of WWI were:

The rise of a unified Germany

The imbalance of power in 20th-century Europe

An arms race between the major powers

The rise in European imperialism and rivalry in Africa and Asia

The increase in opposing international alliances

The rise in nationalism in Central Europe

The assassination of Archduke Ferdinand

All of the above factors contributed to the outbreak of a conflict that "was really the culmination of a long drawn-out crisis within the European system" (McDonough, 3). The exact weight of each of the above causes remains a point of debate amongst historians.

The Rise of Germany

Germany as a state was born in 1871, following the Prussian victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1) and the unification of the German states. Unified Germany had a large, disciplined, and highly trained army and fast-growing navy (it would be the second largest in the world after Britain by 1914), a powerful economic base (in fact, the fastest growing economy in Europe), and a booming population (rising from 49 to 66 million between 1890 and 1914). Suddenly, there was a new power in Central Europe that could challenge the other established powers, notably Britain, France, Russia, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The 'German Question' now arose, that is, a debate over what Germany's future foreign policy might be and how this would affect the balance of power in Europe.

German politics was dominated by its first chancellor, Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898), who held power from 1871 to 1890. Bismarck's approach to foreign policy was to reassure other powers that Germany was satisfied with its present position and status in Europe. Nevertheless, a series of international alliances were formed both with and against Germany as the 19th century came to a close.

Read More

⇒ The Causes of WWI

[whencyclopedia]

RMS Lusitania

RMS Lusitania was a British transatlantic liner infamously sunk by a German U-boat on 7 May 1915 during the First World War (1914-18). Struck off the coast of southern Ireland, the ship sank in less than 20 minutes, and nearly 1,200 passengers lost their lives. The attack on the unarmed vessel sailing from New York to Liverpool caused such a furore in Britain and the United States that Germany subsequently limited its submarine attacks on merchant vessels. The wreck of the Lusitania was explored and mapped by Robert D. Ballard in 1993.

Design

The RMS (Royal Mail Ship) Lusitania, named after the Iberian province of ancient Rome, was a Cunard liner designed for transatlantic voyages. The sleek design was created by the naval architect Leonard Peskett, whose brief was to make the ship faster than anything else afloat. Built at the John Brown Shipyard on the River Clyde in Scotland, the massive riveted steel hull was launched on 7 June 1906. The ship was fitted out as the most luxurious liner afloat, enabling Cunard to attract the maximum number of travellers in the lucrative transatlantic market. Looking to the future, the design of the ship deliberately permitted an easy conversion to an armed merchant cruiser if required. Indeed, the liner's construction had been partially funded by the British Admiralty, and the ship was officially registered with that body as an armed auxiliary cruiser.

The Lusitania displaced 44,767 tonnes and was 240 metres (787 ft) in length – 1912's RMS Titanic was only 29 metres (95 ft) longer. The ship's four funnels stood at a height of over 47 metres (155 ft). Power for the four screw propellers came from four direct-acting Parsons steam turbines, which gave 76,000 hp (57 MW). 5,000 tons of coal were required for every Atlantic crossing. The cruising speed was 50 km/h (30 mph) with a top speed of 25 knots, making it faster than any other liner with the exception of its sister ship, RMS Mauretania (launched in 1906).

Read More

⇒ RMS Lusitania

[whencyclopedia]

The Christmas Truce

The Christmas Truce of 1914 occurred on the Western Front during the First World War (1914-18). On Christmas Eve soldiers in the trenches spontaneously agreed to a ceasefire. Beginning with the singing of Christmas carols, the unofficial truce developed into soldiers meeting in no man's land, exchanging gifts, and even playing football together.

The Trenches in December

WWI began in July 1914 and quickly turned into a war of attrition, with frontline troops of the French, German, Belgian, and British armies subjected to the tribulations and horrors of trench warfare. The trenches were abysmal places: constantly flooded, thick mud everywhere, the men constantly subjected to shell fire, machine guns, and the stench of war. One brief respite came at Christmas time, the traditional season of goodwill to all. Pope Benedict XV (in office 1914-1922) had called for a truce on 17 December. The German government agreed to the ceasefire proposal, but the other nations in the war did not.

It seemed, then, that the only consolation and source of festive cheer for the troops on all sides would be their Christmas parcels sent from home. For British troops alone, well over 500,000 parcels were sent to the front in the weeks leading up to Christmas. Parcels from home included food, sweets, cigarettes, pipe tobacco, items of warmer clothing like socks and gloves, small gifts, and, perhaps from the more imaginative relatives, a few simple Christmas decorations. British and British Empire troops, in addition to charity and family parcels, also received a special gift tin from Princess Mary (1897-1965), daughter of King George V (r. 1910-1936). The embossed brass tin, one for every single soldier, contained a Christmas card, photographs of the king and royal family, pipe tobacco, a packet of cigarettes, and a tinder lighter. For those who did not smoke, there was a version with sweets and a pencil case. The king's photograph carried on the reverse the following message: "With our best wishes for Christmas 1914. May God protect you and bring you home safe" while the Christmas card read "With best wishes for a happy Christmas and a victorious New Year" (Brown, 124). Likewise, Wilhelm II, German Emperor (r. 1888-1918) gave a present of a cigar case and cigars to all German soldiers at the front. Wilhelm, German Crown Prince (1882-1951), gave everyone a souvenir pipe with his portrait on it.

Trenches were brightened up using candles, Christmas cards, holly and mistletoe scavenged from nearby forests, and perhaps a small Christmas tree or suitable substitute. German troops, in particular, received thousands of Christmas trees sent from home, and many were placed on the parapets of the trenches. On 23 December, as if in tune with the sentiment of the soldiers, mother nature contributed to the festive scene by ending the dreadful period of rainy weather that had bedevilled the troops since early November. Instead, snow began to fall upon many sections of the front line. The frost that night finally hardened up the mud. Next morning, as Rifleman Bernard Brookes noted in his diary, the effect was "a Christmas card Christmas Eve" (Brown, 60).

Princess Mary's Gift Tin, 1914

Imperial War Museums (CC BY-NC-SA)

Continue reading...