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The Bible (from Koine Greek τὰ βιβλία, tà biblía, "the books")[1] is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans.

Many different authors contributed to the Bible. What is regarded as canonical text differs depending on traditions and groups; a number of Bible canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents.[2] The Christian Old Testament overlaps with the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint; the Hebrew Bible is known in Judaism as the Tanakh. The New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, believed to be mostly Jewish disciples of Christ, written in first-century Koine Greek. These early Christian Greek writings consist of narratives, letters, and apocalyptic writings. Among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon, primarily the Apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect.

Attitudes towards the Bible also differ amongst Christian groups. Roman Catholics, Anglicans and Eastern Orthodox Christians stress the harmony and importance of the Bible and sacred tradition, while Protestant churches focus on the idea of sola scriptura, or scripture alone. This concept arose during the Protestant Reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only source of Christian teaching.

With estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies, the Bible is widely considered to be the best-selling book of all time.[3][4] It has estimated annual sales of 100 million copies,[5][6] and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the West, where the Gutenberg Bible was the first book printed using movable type.

Contents

1Etymology

2Development

3Hebrew Bible

4Septuagint

5Christian Bibles

6Divine inspiration

7Versions and translations

8Views

9Archaeological and historical research

10Image gallery

11Illustrations

12See also

13Notes

14References

15Further reading

1.1Textual history

3.1Torah

3.2Nevi'im

3.3Ketuvim

3.4Original languages

4.1Incorporations from Theodotion

4.2Final form

5.1Old Testament

5.2New Testament

5.3Development of the Christian canons

8.1Other religions

8.2Biblical studies

8.3Higher criticism

14.1Works cited

Etymology

The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the same word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin and ultimately from Koine Greek τὰ βιβλία ta biblia "the books" (singular βιβλίον biblion).[7]

Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra "holy book", while biblia in Greek and Late Latin is neuter plural (gen. bibliorum). It gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun (biblia, gen. bibliae) in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe.[8] Latin biblia sacra "holy books" translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια ta biblia ta hagia, "the holy books".[9]

The word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of "paper" or "scroll" and came to be used as the ordinary word for "book". It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, "Egyptian papyrus", possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos (also known as Gebal) from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece. The Greek ta biblia (lit. "little papyrus books")[10] was "an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books (the Septuagint).[11][12] Christian use of the term can be traced to c. 223 CE.[7]The biblical scholar F.F. Bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer (in his Homilies on Matthew, delivered between 386 and 388) to use the Greek phrase ta biblia ("the books") to describe both the Old and New Testaments together.[13]

Textual history

By the 2nd century BCE, Jewish groups began calling the books of the Bible the "scriptures" and they referred to them as "holy", or in Hebrew כִּתְבֵי הַקֹּדֶשׁ (Kitvei hakkodesh), and Christians now commonly call the Old and New Testaments of the Christian Bible "The Holy Bible" (in Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια, tà biblía tà ágia) or "the Holy Scriptures" (η Αγία Γραφή, e Agía Graphḗ).[14] The Bible was divided into chapters in the 13th century by Stephen Langton and it was divided into verses in the 16th century by French printer Robert Estienne[15] and is now usually cited by book, chapter, and verse. The division of the Hebrew Bible into verses is based on the sof passuk cantillation mark used by the 10th-century Masoretes to record the verse divisions used in earlier oral traditions.

The oldest extant copy of a complete Bible is an early 4th-century parchment book preserved in the Vatican Library, and it is known as the Codex Vaticanus. The oldest copy of the Tanakh in Hebrew and Aramaic dates from the 10th century CE. The oldest copy of a complete Latin (Vulgate) Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, dating from the 8th century.[16]

Development

See also:

Authorship of the Bible

The

Isaiah scroll

, which is a part of the

Dead Sea Scrolls

, contains almost the whole

Book of Isaiah

. It dates from the 2nd century BCE.

Saint Paul Writing His Epistles

, 16th-century painting.

Professor John K. Riches, Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism at the University of Glasgow, says that "the biblical texts themselves are the result of a creative dialogue between ancient traditions and different communities through the ages",[17] and "the biblical texts were produced over a period in which the living conditions of the writers – political, cultural, economic, and ecological – varied enormously".[18] Timothy H. Lim, a professor of Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Judaism at the University of Edinburgh, says that the Old Testament is "a collection of authoritative texts of apparently divine origin that went through a human process of writing and editing."[19] He states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. Parallel to the solidification of the Hebrew canon (c. 3rd century BCE), only the Torah first and then the Tanakh began to be translated into Greek and expanded, now referred to as the Septuagint or the Greek Old Testament.[20]

In Christian Bibles, the New Testament Gospels were derived from oral traditions in the second half of the first century CE. Riches says that:

Scholars have attempted to reconstruct something of the history of the oral traditions behind the Gospels, but the results have not been too encouraging. The period of transmission is short: less than 40 years passed between the death of Jesus and the writing of Mark's Gospel. This means that there was little time for oral traditions to assume fixed form.[21]

The Bible was later translated into Latin and other languages. John Riches states that:

The translation of the Bible into Latin marks the beginning of a parting of the ways between Western Latin-speaking Christianity and Eastern Christianity, which spoke Greek, Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, and other languages. The Bibles of the Eastern Churches vary considerably: the Ethiopic Orthodox canon includes 81 books and contains many apocalyptic texts, such as were found at Qumran and subsequently excluded from the Jewish canon. As a general rule, one can say that the Orthodox Churches generally follow the Septuagint in including more books in their Old Testaments than are in the Jewish canon.[21]

Former Prophets

The Former Prophets are the books Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings. They contain narratives that begin immediately after the death of Moses with the divine appointmen

KetuvimMain article:

Ketuvim

Books of the

Ketuvim

Three poetic books

Psalms

Proverbs

Job

Five Megillot (Scrolls)

Song of Songs

Ruth

Lamentations

Ecclesiastes

Esther

Other books

Daniel

Chronicles

Ezra–Nehemiah (Ezra

Nehemiah)

Hebrew Bible

Ketuvim or Kəṯûḇîm (in Biblical Hebrew: כְּתוּבִים‎‎ "writings") is the third and final section of the Tanakh. The Ketuvim are believed to have been written under the Ruach HaKodesh (the Holy Spirit) but with one level less authority than that of prophecy.[35]

The poetic books

Hebrew

text of

Psalm 1:1-2

In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two-column form emphasizing the parallel stichs in the verses, which are a function of their poetry. Collectively, these three books are known as Sifrei Emet (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, איוב, משלי, תהלים yields Emet אמ"ת, which is also the Hebrew for "truth").

These three books are also the only ones in Tanakh with a special system of cantillation notes that are designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However, the beginning and end of the book of Job are in the normal prose system.

The five scrolls (

Hamesh Megillot

)

The five relatively short books of Song of Songs, Book of Ruth, the Book of Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Book of Esther are collectively known as the Hamesh Megillot (Five Megillot). These are the latest books collected and designated as "authoritative" in the Jewish canon even though they were not complete until the 2nd century CE.[36]

Other books

Besides the three poetic books and the five scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim are Daniel, Ezra–Nehemiah and Chronicles. Although there is no formal grouping for these books in the Jewish tradition, they nevertheless share a number of distinguishing characteristics:

Their narratives all openly describe relatively late events (i.e., the Babylonian captivity and the subsequent restoration of Zion).

The Talmudic tradition ascribes late authorship to all of them.

Two of them (Daniel and Ezra) are the only books in the Tanakh with significant portions in Aramaic.

Order of the books

The following list presents the books of Ketuvim in the order they appear in most printed editions. It also divides them into three subgroups based on the distinctiveness of Sifrei Emet and Hamesh Megillot.

The Three Poetic Books (Sifrei Emet)

Tehillim (Psalms) תְהִלִּים

Mishlei (Book of Proverbs) מִשְלֵי

Iyyôbh (Book of Job) אִיּוֹב

The Five Megillot (Hamesh Megillot)

Shīr Hashshīrīm (Song of Songs) or (Song of Solomon) שִׁיר הַשׁשִׁירִים (Passover)

Rūth (Book of Ruth) רוּת (Shābhû‘ôth)

Eikhah (Lamentations) איכה (Ninth of Av) [Also called Kinnot in Hebrew.]

Qōheleth (Ecclesiastes) קהלת (Sukkôth)

Estēr (Book of Esther) אֶסְתֵר (Pûrîm)

Other books

Dānî’ēl (Book of Daniel) דָּנִיֵּאל

‘Ezrā (Book of Ezra–Book of Nehemiah) עזרא

Divrei ha-Yamim (Chronicles) דברי הימים

The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The Babylonian Talmud (Bava Batra 14b-15a) gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles.[37]

In Tiberian Masoretic codices, including the Aleppo Codex and the Leningrad Codex, and often in old Spanish manuscripts as well, the order is Chronicles, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Esther, Daniel, Ezra.[38]

Canonization

The Ketuvim is the last of the three portions of the Tanakh to have been accepted as biblical canon. While the Torah may have been considered canon by Israel as early as the 5th century BCE and the Former and Latter Prophets were canonized by the 2nd century BCE, the Ketuvim was not a fixed canon until the 2nd century of the Common Era.[36]

Evidence suggests, however, that the people of Israel were adding what would become the Ketuvim to their holy literature shortly after the canonization of the prophets. As early as 132 BCE references suggest that the Ketuvim was starting to take shape, although it lacked a formal title.[39] References in the four Gospels as well as other books of the New Testament indicate that many of these texts were both commonly known and counted as having some degree of religious authority early in the 1st century CE.

Many scholars believe that the limits of the Ketuvim as canonized scripture were determined by the Council of Jamnia c. 90 CE. Against Apion, the writing of Josephus in 95 CE, treated the text of the Hebrew Bible as a closed canon to which "... no one has ventured either to add, or to remove, or to alter a syllable..."[40] For a long time following this date the divine inspiration of Esther, the Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes was often under scrutiny.[41]

Original languages

The Tanakh was mainly written in biblical Hebrew, with some small portions (Ezra 4:8–6:18 and 7:12–26, Jeremiah 10:11, Daniel 2:4–7:28) written in biblical Aramaic, a sister language which became the lingua franca for much of the Semitic world.[42]

Septuagint

Main article:

Septuagint

Fragment of a Septuagint: A column of

uncial

book from

1 Esdras

in the

Codex Vaticanus

c. 325–350 CE, the basis of Sir Lancelot Charles Lee Brenton's Greek edition and

English translation

The Septuagint, or the LXX, is a translation of the Hebrew Scriptures and some related texts into Koine Greek, begun in the late 3rd century BCE and completed by 132 BCE,[43][44][45] initially in Alexandria, but in time it was completed elsewhere as well.[46] It is not altogether clear which was translated when, or where; some may even have been translated twice, into different versions, and then revised.[47]

As the work of translation progressed, the canon of the Greek Bible expanded. The Torah always maintained its pre-eminence as the basis of the canon but the collection of prophetic writings, based on the Nevi'im, had various hagiographical works incorporated into it. In addition, some newer books were included in the Septuagint, among these are the Maccabees and the Wisdom of Sirach. However, the book of Sirach, is now known to have existed in a Hebrew version, since ancient Hebrew manuscripts of it were rediscovered in modern times. The Septuagint version of some Biblical books, like Daniel and Esther, are longer than those in the Jewish canon.[48] Some of these deuterocanonical books (e.g. the Wisdom of Solomon, and the second book of Maccabees) were not translated, but composed directly in Greek.[citation needed]

Since Late Antiquity, once attributed to a hypothetical late 1st-century Council of Jamnia, mainstream Rabbinic Judaism rejected the Septuagint as valid Jewish scriptural texts. Several reasons have been given for this. First, some mistranslations were claimed. Second, the Hebrew source texts used for the Septuagint differed from the Masoretic tradition of Hebrew texts, which was chosen as canonical by the Jewish rabbis.[49] Third, the rabbis wanted to distinguish their tradition from the newly emerging tradition of Christianity.[45][50] Finally, the rabbis claimed a divine authority for the Hebrew language, in contrast to Aramaic or Greek – even though these languages were the lingua franca of Jews during this period (and Aramaic would eventually be given a holy language status comparable to Hebrew).[51]

The Septuagint is the basis for the Old Latin, Slavonic, Syriac, Old Armenian, Old Georgian and Coptic versions of the Christian Old Testament.[52] The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches use most of the books of the Septuagint, while Protestant churches usually do not. After the Protestant Reformation, many Protestant Bibles began to follow the Jewish canon and exclude the additional texts, which came to be called Biblical apocrypha. The Apocrypha are included under a separate heading in the King James Version of the Bible, the basis for the Revised Standard Version.[53]

Incorporations from Theodotion

In most ancient copies of the Bible which contain the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Book of Daniel is not the original Septuagint version, but instead is a copy of Theodotion's translation from the Hebrew, which more closely resembles the Masoretic Text.[citation needed] The Septuagint version was discarded in favour of Theodotion's version in the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE. In Greek-speaking areas, this happened near the end of the 2nd century, and in Latin-speaking areas (at least in North Africa), it occurred in the middle of the 3rd century. History does not record the reason for this, and St. Jerome reports, in the preface to the Vulgate version of Daniel, "This thing 'just' happened."[54] One of two Old Greek texts of the Book of Daniel has been recently rediscovered and work is ongoing in reconstructing the original form of the book.[55]

The canonical Ezra–Nehemiah is known in the Septuagint as "Esdras B", and 1 Esdras is "Esdras A". 1 Esdras is a very similar text to the books of Ezra–Nehemiah, and the two are widely thought by scholars to be derived from the same original text. It has been proposed, and is thought highly likely by scholars, that "Esdras B" – the canonical Ezra–Nehemiah – is Theodotion's version of this material, and "Esdras A" is the version which was previously in the Septuagint on its own.[54]

Final form

Some texts are found in the Septuagint but are not present in the Hebrew. These additional books are Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach, Baruch, the Letter of Jeremiah (which later became chapter 6 of Baruch in the Vulgate), additions to Daniel (The Prayer of Azarias, the Song of the Three Children, Susanna and Bel and the Dragon), additions to Esther, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, 3 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Odes, including the Prayer of Manasseh, the Psalms of Solomon, and Psalm 151.

Some books that are set apart in the Masoretic Text are grouped together. For example, the Books of Samuel and the Books of Kings are in the LXX one book in four parts called Βασιλειῶν ("Of Reigns"). In LXX, the Books of Chronicles supplement Reigns and it is called Paralipomenon (Παραλειπομένων—things left out). The Septuagint organizes the minor prophets as twelve parts of one Book of Twelve.[55]

Main articles:

Christian biblical canons

and

List of English Bible translations

A page from the

Gutenberg Bible

A Christian Bible is a set of books that a Christian denomination regards as divinely inspired and thus constituting scripture. Although the Early Church primarily used the Septuagint or the Targums among Aramaicspeakers, the apostles did not leave a defined set of new scriptures; instead the canon of the New Testament developed over time. Groups within Christianity include differing books as part of their sacred writings, most prominent among which are the biblical apocrypha or deuterocanonical books.

Significant versions of the English Christian Bible include the Douay-Rheims Bible, the Authorized King James Version, the English Revised Version, the American Standard Version, the Revised Standard Version, the New American Standard Version, the New King James Version, the New International Version, and the English Standard Version.

Old TestamentMain article:

Old Testament

The books which make up the Christian Old Testament differ between the Catholic (see Catholic Bible), Orthodox, and Protestant (see Protestant Bible) churches, with the Protestant movement accepting only those books contained in the Hebrew Bible, while Catholics and Orthodox have wider canons. A few groups consider particular translations to be divinely inspired, notably the Greek Septuagint and the Aramaic Peshitta.[citation needed]

Apocryphal or deuterocanonical books

In Eastern Christianity, translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. The Septuagint was generally abandoned in favour of the 10th-century Masoretic Text as the basis for translations of the Old Testament into Western languages.[citation needed] Some modern Western translations since the 14th century make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic Text, where the Septuagint may preserve a variant reading of the Hebrew text.[citation needed] They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in other texts, e.g., those discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.[58][59]

A number of books which are part of the Peshitta or the Greek Septuagint but are not found in the Hebrew (Rabbinic) Bible (i.e., among the protocanonical books) are often referred to as deuterocanonical books by Roman Catholics referring to a later secondary (i.e., deutero) canon, that canon as fixed definitively by the Council of Trent 1545–1563.[60][61] It includes 46 books for the Old Testament (45 if Jeremiah and Lamentations are counted as one) and 27 for the New.[62]

Most Protestants term these books as apocrypha. Modern Protestant traditions do not accept the deuterocanonical books as canonical, although Protestant Bibles included them in Apocrypha sections until the 1820s. However, Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches include these books as part of their Old Testament.

The Roman Catholic Church recognizes:[63]

Tobit

Judith

1 Maccabees

2 Maccabees

Wisdom

Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus)

Baruch

The Letter of Jeremiah (Baruch Chapter 6)

Greek Additions to Esther (Book of Esther, chapters 10:4 – 12:6)

The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children verses 1–68 (Book of Daniel, chapter 3, verses 24–90)

Susanna (Book of Daniel, chapter 13)

Bel and the Dragon (Book of Daniel, chapter 14)

In addition to those, the Greek and Russian Orthodox Churches recognize the following:[citation needed]

3 Maccabees

1 Esdras

Prayer of Manasseh

Psalm 151

Russian and Georgian Orthodox Churches include:[citation needed]

2 Esdras i.e., Latin Esdras in the Russian and Georgian Bibles

There is also 4 Maccabees which is only accepted as canonical in the Georgian Church, but was included by St. Jerome in an appendix to the Vulgate, and is an appendix to the Greek Orthodox Bible, and it is therefore sometimes included in collections of the Apocrypha.[citation needed]

The Syriac Orthodox tradition includes:[citation needed]

Psalms 151–155

The Apocalypse of Baruch

The Letter of Baruch

The Ethiopian Biblical canon includes:[citation needed]

Jubilees

Enoch

1–3 Meqabyan

and some other books.

The Anglican Church uses some of the Apocryphal books liturgically. Therefore, editions of the Bible intended for use in the Anglican Church include the Deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic Church, plus 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, which were in the Vulgate appendix.[citation needed]

Pseudepigraphal booksMain article:

Pseudepigrapha

The term Pseudepigrapha commonly describes numerous works of Jewish religious literature written from about 300 BCE to 300 CE. Not all of these works are actually pseudepigraphical. It also refers to books of the New Testament canon whose authorship is misrepresented. The "Old Testament" Pseudepigraphal works include the following:[64]

3 Maccabees

4 Maccabees

Assumption of Moses

Ethiopic Book of Enoch (1 Enoch)

Slavonic Book of Enoch (2 Enoch)

Hebrew Book of Enoch (3 Enoch) (also known as "The Revelation of Metatron" or "The Book of Rabbi Ishmael the High Priest")

Book of Jubilees

Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch (2 Baruch)

Letter of Aristeas (Letter to Philocrates regarding the translating of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek)

Life of Adam and Eve

Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah

Psalms of Solomon

Sibylline Oracles

Greek Apocalypse of Baruch (3 Baruch)

Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs

Book of Enoch

Notable pseudepigraphal works include the Books of Enoch (such as 1 Enoch, 2 Enoch, surviving only in Old Slavonic, and 3 Enoch, surviving in Hebrew, c. 5th to 6th century CE). These are ancient Jewish religious works, traditionally ascribed to the prophet Enoch, the great-grandfather of the patriarch Noah. They are not part of the biblical canon used by Jews, apart from Beta Israel. Most Christian denominations and traditions may accept the Books of Enoch as having some historical or theological interest or significance. It has been observed that part of the Book of Enoch is quoted in the Epistle of Jude (part of the New Testament) but Christian denominations generally regard the Books of Enoch as non-canonical or non-inspired.[65] However, the Enoch books are treated as canonical by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.

The older sections (mainly in the Book of the Watchers) are estimated to date from about 300 BC, and the latest part (Book of Parables) probably was composed at the end of the 1st century BCE.[66]

Denominational views of Pseudepigrapha

There arose in some Protestant biblical scholarship an extended use of the term pseudepigrapha for works that appeared as though they ought to be part of the biblical canon, because of the authorship ascribed to them, but which stood outside both the biblical canons recognized by Protestants and Catholics. These works were also outside the particular set of books that Roman Catholics called deuterocanonical and to which Protestants had generally applied the term Apocryphal. Accordingly, the term pseudepigraphical, as now used often among both Protestants and Roman Catholics (allegedly for the clarity it brings to the discussion), may make it difficult to discuss questions of pseudepigraphical authorship of canonical books dispassionately with a lay audience. To confuse the matter even more, Eastern Orthodox Christians accept books as canonical that Roman Catholics and most Protestant denominations consider pseudepigraphical or at best of much less authority. There exist also churches that reject some of the books that Roman Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants accept. The same is true of some Jewish sects. Many works that are "apocryphal" are otherwise considered genuine.

Divine inspiration

Main articles:

Biblical inspiration

Biblical literalism

Biblical infallibility

, and

Biblical inerrancy

A Bible is placed centrally on a

Lutheran

altar, highlighting its importance

The Second Epistle to Timothy says that "all scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness". (2 Timothy 3:16)[81] Various related but distinguishable views on divine inspiration include:

the view of the Bible as the inspired word of God: the belief that God, through the Holy Spirit, intervened and influenced the words, message, and collation of the Bible[82]

the view that the Bible is also infallible, and incapable of error in matters of faith and practice, but not necessarily in historic or scientific matters

the view that the Bible represents the inerrant word of God, without error in any aspect, spoken by God and written down in its perfect form by humans

Within these broad beliefs many schools of hermeneutics operate. "Bible scholars claim that discussions about the Bible must be put into its context within church history and then into the context of contemporary culture."[68]Fundamentalist Christians are associated[by whom?] with the doctrine of biblical literalism, where the Bible is not only inerrant, but the meaning of the text is clear to the average reader.[83]

Jewish antiquity attests to belief in sacred texts,[84][85] and a similar belief emerges in the earliest of Christian writings. Various texts of the Bible mention divine agency in relation to its writings.[86] In their book A General Introduction to the Bible, Norman Geisler and William Nix write: "The process of inspiration is a mystery of the providence of God, but the result of this process is a verbal, plenary, inerrant, and authoritative record."[87] Most evangelical biblical scholars[88][89][90] associate inspiration with only the original text; for example some American Protestants adhere to the 1978 Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy which asserted that inspiration applied only to the autographic text of Scripture.[91] Among adherents of Biblical literalism, a minority, such as followers of the King-James-Only Movement, extend the claim of inerrancy only to a particular translation.[92]

See also

Bible portal

Judaism portal

Christianity portal

Bible box

Bible case

Bible paper

Biblical software

Code of Hammurabi

List of major biblical figures

Outline of the Bible

Scriptorium

Theodicy and the Bible

#guys im so sorry #mine #bts #bts scenarios #bts reactions #bts angst #bangtan #bangtan scenarios #bangtan boys #bangtan seonyeondan #bangtan sonyeondan #bts smut #bts crack

122 notes · View notes

aham-bramasmi · 3 years

Text

HE WAS ROUGH. HE WAS CRUDE. HIS METHODS WERE UNORTHODOX Prophet TB Joshua

Biography

Born 12 June 1963

Died 5 June 2021

Nigerian charismatic pastor, televangelist, and philanthropist. He was the leader and founder of Synagogue, Church of All Nations (SCOAN), A Christian mega church that runs the Emmanuel TV television station from Lagos. He was one of Nigeria's millionaire church pastors who fly private jets.

Joshua, then known as Balogun Francis, attended St. Stephen's Anglican Primary School in Arigidi Akoko, Nigeria, between 1971 and 1977, but failed to complete one year of secondary school education. In school, he was known as "small pastor" because of his love for the Bible. He came from a poor background and was brought up by his Muslim uncle following the death of his Christian father.

According to Joshua, he spent 15 months in his mother's womb.

His Rise To Firm

· He started his ministry in 1989.

· In the early Nineties, his performance could be characterized as that of a magician, an entertainer in the mold of popular street performers. In the early Nineties he could not preach a sermon because he couldn’t speak English.

· When he started his ministry on television in the mid-90s, his hair did not glisten, his shoes were not shiny and he did not have an American twang - he spoke with a Yoruba accent, and a mixture of English and Pidgin. He mostly wore a Jalabia - a loose-fitting garment worn by Muslims, and kept a moustache that gave him an intense look.

· He refined himself as he became wealthy, adding a fleet of cars and a private jet to look the part, but he remained an outsider.

· His followers found him charismatic and down-to-earth, and his message spread around the world.

· In recognition of his humanitarian activities, he was awarded a National Honor by the Nigerian government in 2008 as well as receiving a letter of appreciation from the United Nations.

· He was further honored as an Ambassador of Peace by the Arewa Youth Forum, a predominantly Muslim organization, as well as being recognized with an 'award of excellence' by ZAKA, Israel's primary rescue and recovery voluntary service.

· Ironically, it was pressure instigated by the Pentecostal Fellowship of Nigeria, with the NBC acting as a gatekeeper that allowed Joshua to flourish even further and set up Emmanuel TV. On April 30 2004, a law by the National Broadcasting Commission (NBC) came into effect, making it illegal to broadcast material containing the performance of miracles that have not been verified before the broadcast.

· In 2011, Joshua was third on the Forbes list of Nigeria’s five richest pastors, whose net worth was estimated at close to $15-million.

Religious Controversy

The Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) and Pentecostal Fellowship of Nigeria (PFN) both acknowledged Joshua was not a member of either organization and denounced him as an 'impostor'. Enoch Adeboye, David Oyedepo, Ayo Oritsejafor, Paul Adefarasin and Matthew Ashimolowo are among the pastors that publicly denounced Joshua as an "impostor" who belonged to a group of "occults" that had infiltrated Christianity.

The CAN and PFN have also maitained that Joshua had no traceable record of mentorship and grounding according to the biblical model.

When he started his ministry probably up to the point of his death he didn’t have a church council, elders or deacons because he believed this would limit the grace of God that works through him.

He did not publish a statement of faith or theology in line with mainstream churches and practice.

Famous Ghanaian witch doctor, Nana Kwaku Bonsam once claimed T.B Joshua goes to him to acquire spiritual powers and challenged the Nigerian prophet to come out openly to deny.

Blacklisted in Cameroon:

He was 'blacklisted' by the government of Cameroon in 2010 and termed a 'son of the devil'. Rumours of a visit by Joshua to Zimbabwe in 2012 led to an intense national debate, culminating with pastors and politicians strongly objecting.

US election prophecy:

Joshua incorrectly predicted that Hillary Clinton would win the 2016 US election. After this prophecy failed to materialize, with Donald Trump winning the election, Joshua stated that he was referring to Clinton's win in the popular vote and any misinterpretation was due to a lack of "spiritual understanding".

Coronavirus:

Joshua claimed that COVID-19 would disappear globally on 27 March 2020.

His Ministration & Practice

He wielded enormous power - people fell when he spread out his arms, rolled when he snapped his fingers, and his breath pushed back rows and rows of his congregation.

To witness his prayer sessions in the early days of his televised ministry was to be treated to exorcism that many felt bordered on the occult.

On some occasions, he gazed intently at those he was praying for and seemed to control the movement of others with an invisible remote. His critics believe he could use his eyes with demonic powers in them to superimpose his thoughts into people a practice referred to as mesmerism or hypnotism.

Some of it felt like a hypnotic session, others like that of a magician at work.

His critics believe, telepathizing, hypnotism, occultism, kabbalah magic are processes of ruling the minds of weaker men. It could go to the length of seeing the magic maker in the dreams once the weaker person allows the demonic spirit of the conjurer to influence his mind.

He prayed over handkerchiefs, photographs and other personal belongings and asked people to take them home with them.

He also prayed over little bags of water, which were handed out at the church for people to suck and receive healing.

There were also reports that Joshua referred to the water in the bags as the ''blood of Christ'' (What about Holy Communion and its interpretation?).

His critics also associated the extreme shaking of the hand to shamanism.

He believed illness was caused by sin. If someone was healed and become ill again, it is because the person had sinned again.

Question & Answer Interview

“Given by T.B Joshua in a book called Pastor W.F. Kumuyi and Prophet T.B. Joshua: Are both messengers of God? By Isaac B. Agbaje and Abieye Kalu.”

Q: Why he doesn't criticize other men of God?

A: "Despite the fact that many fellow ministers of God daily blaspheme against me, I refrain from retaliating, because I know the grave consequences of criticizing an anointed man of God ... For instance, if you are a minister of God, but deliberately go out of your way to blaspheme against another man of God, whom you knew is a true man of God, you have lost one or two of your spiritual powers to the colleague you blasphemed against unjustifiably."

Q: Why he is a vegetarian?

A: "I was not born a vegetarian. In fact, when God sent me on this mission, I realized that my work is tedious. I will refer to John 5:37: "And the Father who sent me hath borne witness to me, His Voice you have never heard, His form you have never seen."

"In a week I deliver contrary spirit carriers (Ogbanjes), witches and wizards (about 1000 of them). They are not ordinary human beings. Some are half human and half fish. So if you eat fish you cannot deliver them."

Q: His unique divine personality.

A: "The divine person in me can do a million things simultaneously. I can appear to thousands people in their dreams in any part of the world to set them free of their sicknesses, problems and afflictions."

My Opinion

Unlike his peers Prophet Joshua did not establish church branches on every street corner and mostly kept his family in the background. The church was him and he was the church, each a reflection of the other. It was a typical one-man show, although he has disciples. It will be interesting to see how the church will chart the way forward without him.

Many of the things he was criticized for are also practiced by many of the Pentecostals who are no less deified by their members but because he did not belong to the clique or fall into their own description of God, he was demonized.

Religion has been used to a larger extent to divide people and take away their dignity and their identity it is for this reason that I am not a fan of religion.

Spiritual laws will always trample on religion because they are no respecter of any human being, place and time. Regardless of your colour, creed and nationality wherever you are the law of gravity will always work and the same goes with other laws of creation.

He was rough. He was crude. His methods were unorthodox!

By Reul Reul

REFERENCES & CREDITS

BBC World Africa

Adom TV - Bishop Kayode Peller

Wikipedia - By TBJ Arabic - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0

Apologetics Coordination Team

Mail & Guardian

#The Christian Association of Nigeria #Pentecostal Fellowship of Nigeria #Satanism #witchcraft #shamanism #pentecostalism #charismaticchurches #prophet tb joshua #bishop david oyedepo #bishopenochadeboye #christianity #miracles #signs and wonders #hypnosis #telepathy

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channelguest · 5 years

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Sentiers entre Vents et Marées | Tourisme Îles de la Madeleine

Dreaming about discovering the Islands in a new way?

Then come along for a walk on the Sentiers entre Vents et Marées, either by yourself or with a group.

A few years ago, local walkers who wandered along the Camino de Santiago joined forces to create a long-distance walking trail throughout the archipelago. In the spring of 2016, the committee of the Sentiers entre Vents et Marées (SEVEM) presented its project via the Club de plein air des Îles (outdoor club) with the help of various partners. Trail markers where installed during the summer of 2017. Over time, some steps will be modified due to rights of way acquisition on private lands, a process that will last a few years in order to maximize the wealth of this circuit.

This walking trail goes around the Islands through natural and groomed trails, as well as back roads and long stretches of beaches (where possible). Thirteen septs lasting anywhere from 6 to 28 km shape this 230 km long secure and marked circuit, which promotes the protection of our environment. As for the level of difficulty, it ranges from intermediate to difficult.The trails suggest some stops in various villages of the archipelago. With its outstanding landscapes, this long trek offers a combination of physical, cultural and spiritual aspects.

Look for the logo of the Sentiers entre Vents et Marées

The stylish shell refers to the Camino de Santiago and includes a tree structure of a scheme illustrating personal growth or the happiness of the walker. As for the colours, they are a reminder of the Acadian flag, which holds the roots of numerous Madelinots.

The 2nd édition of the Guide of Hiking Trails and Circuits

A new edition of this booklet illustrating hiking trails and the 13 steps of the Sentiers entre Vents et Marées is now available! Get it now at the Tourist Information Centre for $ 20.

The Trail Markers

Markers are located in strategic places (forks, junctions, turns, etc.) along the trails. They consist of metal panels (illustration 1 and 2) and stylish shells or arrows (illustrations 3) posted on various items (sign posts, power poles, rocks, etc.). When you exit the beaches, pay attention to the orange flag to know which way to go. It is recommended to stay on the designated trails.

WARNING!

All trail markers point in the same direction.

Helpful tips

This multi-day hike does not include any services. Thus, all walkers are fully responsible for their safety, as well as the organization of their stay on the Islands and all associated costs. Trails are open from May 15th to October 15th.

For the long stretches without services, it is absolutely necessary to carry enough food and water for the day.

Using the Official Tourist Guide, it is recommended to locate the services offered in each step as they might be necessary along the way (drugstores, food services, etc.).

Please note that some public restrooms are only open during summertime.

On the beach

For the long strolls on beaches, it is recommended to wear good walking shoes and avoid walking barefoot or using sandals.

The Carnet du Louvoyeur

Ultimate souvenir-tool, the Carnet du Louvoyeur will allow you to look back on your trip at any given time. It is available for purchase $20 (cash only) in the following locations:

In a Madelinot's own words

«"Louvoyer" is a marine term which means: navigating, sometimes to the left, sometimes to the right, when the wind direction does not allow for a straight-line journey. By analogy, the "Louvoyeur" is the one who walks toward is goal while taking a few detours.»

This document contains 13 numbered boxes corresponding to the various step numbers. The dotted lines inside the boxes will be useful for those wishing to split a step in two. For each step, you can get the stamps of selected businesses with the date of your visit. The list of authorized establishments can be found on the bottom of each step description. Please note that the businesses are located before the end of each step. Make sure you pop in while passing by so you won't have to go back. If you didn't manage to get the stamp of any given step, contact the Tourism Bureau for assistance.

The badge

The badge of the trails Sentiers entre Vents et Marées is available for purchase $5 (cash only) in the same locations as the Carnet.

The certificate "L'Estran"

"Estran" is a geography term which refers to the part of the coastline between the highest and lowest water conditions. This is how we chose to name the certificate given at the end of your journey on the trails Sentiers entre Vents et Marées (at least 12 steps out of the 13 steps completed). Signed by the mayor of the Municipality of the Îles-de-la-Madeleine, "L'Estran", your certificate of completion, will be given to you (free of charge) at the Tourism Bureau (128, ch. Principal, Cap-aux-Meules) when showing your "Carnet du Louvoyeur" with stamps pertaining to at least 12 steps out of the 13 steps.

The 13 steps of the Sentiers entre Vents et Marées

STEP 1 - Baie de Plaisance

FROM CAP-AUX-MEULES TO HAVRE-AUBERT

Distance: 27 km Duration: 7 hours Level: Intermediate (half the trail is on sand)

Walk along the Sentier du Littoral and smaller back roads to reach the magnificent beach of , which lasts 13 km long. At the end of this costal stretch, discover , in Havre-Aubert - small hills offering an incredible viewpoint.

FROM HAVRE-AUBERT TO BASSIN

Distance: 26 km Duration: 7 hours Level: Difficult (half the trail is on loose sand and at an angle)

Walk near the (save some time to spend a couple of hours there during your stay). Discover the beach hosting the sandcastle contest before setting off on a long journey along the Sandy Hook. Here, you might feel like you are on the edge of the world... you will understand why once you reach the Bout du Banc.

WARNING !

It is not recommended to venture towards the Bout du Banc alone.

JOURNEY ACROSS THE ISLAND OF HAVRE-AUBERT

Distance: 22 km Duration: 6 hours Level: Intermediate

Travel along various roads running between the sea and the hills - a journey offering beautiful viewpoints on colourful houses. The harbour and the both deserve to be seen. The last bit of this trail goes through a little woodlot sheltered from the wind, which is located on an uncrowded winding route.

WARNING !

Caution is required on smaller unpaved roads, as you may encounter a few motor vehicles.

FROM HAVRE-AUBERT TO L'ÉTANG-DU-NORD

Distance: 22 km Duration: 6 hours Level: Intermediate

Half the trail runs along Route 199, which offers an incredible view on the bay of Havre aux Basques. You can take advantage of the 5 entry points to the beach of La Martinique and walk on sand whenever you feel like it. Once you reach the end of , you can come back on the road. At this point, follow a nice woody trail and smaller back roads to reach the . Don't miss out on the amazing sunsets at the .

FROM L'ÉTANG-DU-NORD TO FATIMA

Distance: 14 km Duration: 4 hours Level: Intermediate

After admiring the magnificent sculpture called Monument aux pêcheurs, at La Côte, walk along the shoreline in a trail made for bikers and walkers, which leads to the Cap Hérissé. A small detour allows you to see the lighthouse from up-close and admire the cliffs of Belle-Anse. Then, it is time to discover the village of Fatima. Since this step is rather short, follow the loop that goes around the township of Cap-Vert and .

WARNING !

Please don't go near the cliffs, as erosion did some sneaky damages.

FROM FATIMA TO POINTE-AUX-LOUPS

Distance: 19 km Duration: 5 hours Level: Difficult (most of the trail is on loose sand and at an angle)

The Grand Plaquier is worth the detour, as it offers great viewpoints on both Havre-aux-Maisons (just in front) and the bay of Cap-Vert. Halfway through the trail sits a stranded barge dated from 1988, part of which is covered with sand. Lastly, continue your journey towards Pointe-aux-Loups, while admiring the inner bay much loved by the community of kitesurfers.

WARNING !

If you feel like going for a swim, go ahead, but be extremely careful as the currents are really strong.

FROM POINTE-AUX-LOUPS TO GROSSE-ÎLE

Distance: 20 km Duration: 5 hours Level: Intermediate

In Pointe-aux-Loups, take a moment to visit the Quai Nord and the Quai Sud. Further along, pass the Mines Seleine - the salt mine of Grosse-Île. In this English-speaking village, follow Rock Mountain Road, which offers great viewpoints that are well worth the detour. Visit the small Anglican Church of Holy Trinity, and have a look at the stained-glass windows in which Jesus put on his rubber boots, just like local fishermen do.

FROM GROSSE-ÎLE TO OLD HARRY

Distance: 10 km Duration: 3 hours Level: Intermediate

If you feel like it, extend this brief step by visiting both the fishing harbour of Grosse-Île-Nord and this part of the English-speaking village. Then, reach the parking area of Les Marais salés and enter the National Wildlife Area via an incredible trail. At this point, enjoy a wonderful scenery made of wild vegetation and sand dunes. Exit at the parking area of L'Échouerie and, once in Old Harry, reach the great stretch of beach called .

FROM OLD HARRY TO GRANDE-ENTRÉE

Distance: 16 km Duration: 4 hours Level: Intermediate (partly on the road)

After crossing the township of Old Harry, walk on the fabulous Île Boudreau. While strolling along the beach leading to the fishing harbour of Grande-Entrée (the main harbour of the Islands), discover beautiful sceneries. The Site de La Pointe offers various services in season. Lastly, ride with the wind along the cliffs until the nice little church of the village.

This trail will be enhanced over the years, and will eventually run along the cliffs as well as inland.

FROM GRANDE-ENTRÉE TO HAVRE-AUX-MAISONS

Distance: 11 km Duration: 3 hours Level: Intermediate

There you are, at the end of the fishing hook that shapes the Islands. Leaving early in the morning with public transportation, hop off at the Chemin de La Cormorandière. From this point, a smaller road takes you to the for several kilometres of walking on sand. Enjoy a great view on the bay of Pointe-aux-Loups and the long stretch of wild vegetation.

JOURNEY ACROSS THE ISLAND

Distance: 16 km Duration: 4 hours Level: Intermediate

Legend says a treasure is hidden on this island - will you be the one to find it? Walk along a series of smaller roads and enjoy wonderful viewpoints. Throughout the trail, feel free to visit the various businesses coming your way, which offer delicious local products. This trail ends near a pretty marina.

FROM HAVRE-AUX-MAISONS TO CAP-AUX-MEULES

Distance: 13 km Duration: 4 hours Level: Intermediate

Cross the bridge and get to the island of Cap-aux-Meules where smaller back roads run through various townships. Then, follow a woody road leading to the Butte du Vent - a summit offering a 360-degree viewpoint. Visit the incredible wooden church of La Vernière, which became a heritage building in 1992. While passing through the village of Cap-aux-Meules (the administrative and service centre of the archipelago), reach the Place des gens de mer, where it all began.

JOURNEY ACROSS THE ISLAND

Distance: 6 km Duration: 2 hours Level: Intermediate

Home of an English-speaking community of Scottish and Irish descent, Entry Island is the only inhabited land off the coast of the archipelago. Follow a trail that runs near a pretty Anglican church and a small museum, and climb up the Big Hill - the highest summit of the Islands culminating at 174 metres. Fall under the spell on the charming green pastures and the bare landscape of this one-of-a-kind island.

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werkboileddown · 7 years

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Research with the ‘Are’Are

The ’Are’are people live in the southern part of Malaita in the Solomon Islands (in Melanesia). During the 1970s the population numbered between 8,000 and 9,000. In earlier times the majority of the people inhabited small hamlets in the mountainous interior of the island, and some lived on the edge of the lagoons of the south-west and of the Mara Masika Passage, the strait which separates Small Malaita from the main island. Since colonial times, many villages have been established on the coast.

The traditional economy consists essentially of the shifting cultivation of tubers (taro, yams and sweet potatoes), the breeding of pigs for ceremonial festivities and fishing on the coast. Colonization introduced the production of copra for export and the breeding, on a small scale, of cattle.

Culturally homogenous, the country of the ’Are’are can be systematically divided into two principal zones whose traditional political organization diverges: the south where the hereditary chiefs come from, and the north, where “big men” emerge through their actions, gathering around them friends and relatives, and increasing their prestige by giving funeral feasts in which food, shell money and music are exchanged. The “big men” from the north and from the south are referred to by the same term, aaraha.

This two-fold division is also reflected in the distribution of musical types: in the north, there is only one type of vocal music for men (divination song), while in the south there are three others (paddling song, pounding song, song with beaten bamboos). Among the four types of panpipe ensembles found, one (’au keto) is only played in the north.

The traditional religious practice was the ancestor cult. During my first stay in the country between 1969 and 1970, at least 90% of the population were Christian, about half of them belonging to the South-Sea Evangelical Church, a fundamentalist church with Baptist allegiance, and the other half divided between followers of the Catholic Church and the Melanesian Church (of Anglican origin). The followers of the Catholic and Melanesian Churches continued to perform traditional music. They participated in the traditional funeral festivities and panpipe ensembles could be heard at the inauguration of a church, a dispensary or a school. Attempts were also made to introduce selected elements of traditional music into church service. On the other hand, the members of the SSEC, following the directives of the expatriate missionaries and Melanesian pastors, condemned all traditional music as “devil music,” the spirits of the ancestors being described by them as “devils.” As a result, for all their music the followers of the SSEC had only Protestant hymns of American origin and the songs which some ethnomusicologists have called “Panpacific Pop,” of neo-Polynesian inspiration, accompanied by guitar and ukulele.

This popular music, which the young ‘Are’are sang, usually in pidgin English (the lingua franca of the Solomons) but also occasionally in the ’Are’are language, was widely spread through the radio. From a musical viewpoint these compositions had no features that were specifically ’Are’are or characteristic of the Solomon Islands. The ‘Are’are were very conscious that the musical style of the religious hymns and of these secular songs was imported, and called them nuuha ni haka or ’au ni haka, “song of the whites” or “music of the whites.” On the other hand, the different types of traditional music, each with its own name, were generally described collectively by the expressions “music of custom” or “songs of custom” (‘au or nuuha ni tootoraha), or even more simply as “music of the land (of the ancestors),” ’au ni hanua.

During the 1970s, when these two films were shot, the music enjoyed by the majority and widely distributed through the radio, consisted of the cowboy songs of Australia, a local variant of the Country and Western style. In the request programs on local radio, which satisfied the wishes of those who knew how to write in English, the Beatles were also frequently heard. In 1969 the Solomon Islands radio station only devoted a quarter of an hour a week to traditional music and oral literature.

If during my work in the Solomon Islands, and in my two films, I devoted myself exclusively to traditional music, it was for reasons of urgency and solidarity with the traditional musicians.

The former British Solomon Islands Protectorate includes six main islands and about 100 smaller ones. The total population is relatively small (less than 150,000 in 1969), but it is characterized by great cultural and linguistic variety. Depending upon the linguistic criteria used, there are between 70 and 100 distinct languages. There are perhaps as many musical cultures. The most urgent task then was to document and study the traditional music before certain genres disappeared or were radically transformed. New genres, such as church and popular music, are also changing, but it is easier, at the time when we wish to study it, to nd historical recordings, thanks to the production of records, to the archives of the missions and especially to the radio. In common with the traditional musicians, I did not want to increase the standing of acculturated music. This music, secular and religious, had no need of support: it was already sufficiently sustained by the prestige attached to everything that came from Europeans (political, economic, educational and religious domination). In order to be able to study traditional music, I had to show unambiguously that I was on the side of those who performed it. I could not be a neutral observer. I chose the “side of custom” (po’o ni tootoraha) at the expense of the “church side” (po’o ni sukuru)1; this was a precondition necessary to gain the confidence of the traditional musicians. Today, now that the inventory of different musical genres used by the ’Are’are is complete, it would be interesting to document and study the present situation, with the interactions, conflicts and eventually the intermingling between traditions and popular music.

#solomon islands #hugo zemp #'are'are #malaita

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