#Chemical Sciences Quantum Chemistry Class Notes

[religion-is-a-mental-illness]

https://www.wsj.com/articles/alan-sokals-joke-is-on-us-as-postmoderism-comes-to-science-23a9383c

By: Lawrence Krauss

Published: Jan 5, 2024

When I taught physics at Yale in the 1980s and ’90s, my colleagues and I took pride in our position on “science hill,” looking down on the humanities scholars in the intellectual valleys below as they were inundated in postmodernism and deconstructionism.

This same attitude motivated the mathematician Alan Sokal to publish his famous 1996 article, “Transgressing the Boundaries: Towards a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity,” in the cultural-studies journal Social Text. He asserted, among other things that “physical ‘reality,’ no less than social ‘reality,’ is at bottom a social and linguistic construct” and that “the scientific community . . . cannot assert a privileged epistemological status with respect to counter-hegemonic narratives emanating from dissident or marginalized communities.”

Mr. Sokal’s paper was a hoax, designed to demonstrate that postmodernism was nonsense. But today postmodern cultural theory is being infused into the very institutions one might expect to be scientific gatekeepers. Hard-science journals publish the same sort of bunk with no hint of irony:

• In November 2022 the Journal of Chemical Education published “A Special Topics Class in Chemistry on Feminism and Science as a Tool to Disrupt the Dysconscious Racism in STEM.” From the abstract: “This article presents an argument on the importance of teaching science with a feminist framework and defines it by acknowledging that all knowledge is historically situated and is influenced by social power and politics.” The course promises “to explore the development and interrelationship between quantum mechanics, Marxist materialism, Afro-futurism/pessimism, and postcolonial nationalism. To problematize time as a linear social construct, the Copenhagen interpretation of the collapse of wave-particle duality was utilized.”

• In March 2022 Physical Review Physics Education Research published “Observing whiteness in introductory physics: A case study.” From the abstract: “Within whiteness, the organization of social life is in terms of a center and margins that are based on dominance, control, and a transcendent figure that is consistently and structurally ascribed value over and above other figures.” The paper criticizes “the use of whiteboards as a primary pedagogical tool” on the grounds that they “play a role in reconstituting whiteness as social organization. . . . They collaborate with white organizational culture, where ideas and experiences gain value (become more central) when written down.”

• A January 2023 paper presented at the Joint Mathematics Meeting, the world’s biggest gathering of mathematicians, was titled “Undergraduate Mathematics Education as a White, Cisheteropatriarchal Space and Opportunities for Structural Disruption to Advance Queer of Color Justice.”

Undergraduates are being exposed to this stuff as well. Rice University offers a course called “Afrochemistry: The Study of Black-Life Matter,” in which “students will apply chemical tools and analysis to understand Black life in the U.S. and students will implement African American sensibilities to analyze chemistry.” The course catalog notes that “no prior knowledge of chemistry or African American studies is required for engagement in this course.”

Such ideas haven’t totally colonized scientific journals and pedagogy, but they are beginning to appear almost everywhere and are getting support and encouragement from the scientific establishment. There are also indications that dissent isn’t welcome. When a group of physicists led by Charles Reichhardt wrote to the American Physical Society, publisher of the Physics Education Research journal, to object to the “observing whiteness” article, APS invited a response, then refused to publish it on the grounds that its arguments, which were scientific and quantitative, were based on “the perspective of a research paradigm that is different from the one of the research being critiqued.”

“This is akin to stating that an astronomer must first accept astrology as true before critiquing it,” the dissenters wrote in the final version of their critique, which they had to publish in a different journal, European Review.

That sounds like an exaggeration, but in 2021 Mount Royal University in Canada fired a tenured professor, Frances Widdowson, for questioning whether indigenous “star knowledge” belonged in an astronomy curriculum. The same year, New Zealand‘s Education Ministry decreed that Māori indigenous “ways of knowing” would have equal standing with science in science classes. The Royal Society of New Zealand investigated two scientists for questioning this policy; they were exculpated but resigned. The University of Auckland removed another scientist who questioned the policy from teaching two biology classes.

In 2020, Signs Journal of Women in Culture and Society published an article by physicist Chanda Prescod-Weinstein titled “Making Black Women Scientists under White Empiricism: The Racialization of Epistemology in Physics.” Ms. Prescod-Weinstein wrote: “Black women must, according to Einstein’s principle of covariance, have an equal claim to objectivity regardless of their simultaneously experiencing intersecting axes of oppression.” This sentence, which dramatically misrepresents Einstein’s theory of general relativity, wouldn’t have been out of place in Mr. Sokal’s 1996 spoof.

Had an article like this appeared in 1996, it would have been dismissed outside the postmodernist fringe. But last year Mr. Sokal himself, noting that the article was No. 56 in the Altmetric ranking of most-discussed scholarly articles for 2020, felt the need to write a 20-page single-spaced rebuttal. The joke turns out to be on all of us—and it isn’t funny.

Mr. Krauss, a theoretical physicist, is president of the Origins Project Foundation and author of “The Edge of Knowledge: Unsolved Mysteries of the Cosmos.”

[ Via: https://archive.md/Bbmju ]

==

Don't forget this gem of ideological gibberish masquerading as both "science" and legitimate scholarship, when it's clearly neither.

Abstract

Glaciers are key icons of climate change and global environmental change. However, the relationships among gender, science, and glaciers – particularly related to epistemological questions about the production of glaciological knowledge – remain understudied. This paper thus proposes a feminist glaciology framework with four key components: 1) knowledge producers; (2) gendered science and knowledge; (3) systems of scientific domination; and (4) alternative representations of glaciers. Merging feminist postcolonial science studies and feminist political ecology, the feminist glaciology framework generates robust analysis of gender, power, and epistemologies in dynamic social-ecological systems, thereby leading to more just and equitable science and human-ice interactions.

[xi-off]

did i ttell yyall bout that time i accidentally took a quantum physics class . u should hear it. it says more abt me than my mbti ever will

my first deadly yet obvious mistake was letting my cousin* help me put my schedule together. in my defense it was my first semester ever at uni and i was taking any and all help i could get. "ur doin premed u might as well take this chem class in case u need it for ur major later" he says. "ok" i say.

*this is the one notorious for building bombs in his kitchen sink. yes he was 2 semesters from getting his bachelors in chemical engineering b4 deciding it was boring and then swapping to computer science for funsies. why do you ask

so yeah the class is named some benign thing like "intro to chemistry principles" with a large footnote that its only required for a handful of STEM degrees, but it therefore covers any and every intro chem credit u will ever need. so im like awesomesauce. might as well since this uni is notorious for idiot credit transfer policies 👍

first week or two is also fairly benign. prof mentions the class is gonna b pretty intense due to the material itself being pretty intense, this isnt really an intro course so hopefully u took ap chem, and im like sure its a 4 credit class. i didnt take ap chem in high school bc our chem teacher Sucked (2/15 ap chem kids my year got a 3 and everyone else failed) so im a little nervous but prepared to hate myself the rest of the semester. pretty cool. chugging along. i dont actually have to teach myself as much basic chem as i thought bc most of its pretty intuitive but im waiting for the other shoe to drop

add/drop deadline passes. my schedule is now set in stone

everything was still fine for a bit. but as per The Rules, somewhere around the 2nd of 4 midterms stuff starts going off the rails and im like. bestie WHAT is happening.u want me modeling WHAT in this janky software from the 90s that responds if and only if it feels like it? wtf is a pi orbital? wtf is hilbert space??? (pause) ARE WE DOING QUANTUM MECHANICS in my INTRO TO CHEM CLASS

(also side note im taking 17 credit hours this semester. the other classes included calc 2 which sucks fat nuts despite the fact im taking it for the second time…its been like 2 years bc i took it in high school… and japanese 101 which ended up being worse than the ACCIDENTAL QUANTUM PHYSICS class in many ways)

so yeah i cried a lot. i got like a 60 on my final and scraped out with a B-. somehow even with Also A B- in my calc class my gpa didnt drop below my scholarship minimum of 3.5 until i failed illustration 101 later. and then i got really disabled. and then covid happened. and now ive been on academic probation for like . hang on doing math. 3 years. and also havent been able to get that resolved to take classes that entire time. and i need to go get that figured out so i can apply to another school UUUUUUGGGHHHHHHH f my gay baka life

tldr: stay in school to draw yuri on ur notes or jesus from bible will put u on academic probation for 3 years

[educomiq-com]

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[a-lonely-tatertot]

Finding Home

A/N: Introducingggggg AMY and linh! it gets gay at the end dont worry, once again thanking @bookwyrminspiration for betaing for me!

Tw: mention of injuries and some phantom pains (is that what they’re called??)

Word count: 2279

Chapter 2: Runaway

A month and an accepted roommate later, she got to remember she was Sophie for a minute. Sophie before everything happened. She saw her sister for the first time since their parents were kidnapped and it knocked the breath out of her. Short, bright pink hair blowing around her set face, Amy’s wide eyes stared up at the apartment complex. 

The stairs passed in a blur as Sophie barreled down them almost tripping over her feet on the way down. Amy, her Amy. “Amy!” she yelled barreling into her sister. A moment too late she thought it would be extremely awkward if it wasn’t Amy.

But it was, and she hugged her tighter than ever. Sophie buried her head in Amy’s short hair taking in the comfort of her sister. “You smell weird,” she whispered.

“Missed you too, sis,” Amy chuckled lightly. 

“Dyed your hair and got glasses?” Sophie said, pulling away and holding her at arm's length. 

“Sorry, are we not going to address the fact that you’re passing as human? Under my original name?” Amy asked.

“Uh yeah guess I’ve got a bit of explaining to do.” Sophie rubbed the back of her neck.

“Oh yeah, but over coffee, because I was not ready to see my sister for the first time in over ten years,” she laughed, “And I need a lot more energy cause we have a lot of talking to do.”

So they talked and talked until the sun set behind the skyline and the street lights flickered on empty roadways. They talked until they were out of coffee to drink and snacks to eat and stars to count. 

Sophie could barely pay attention to the first day of classes. Every flash of strawberry blonde and soft eyes sent her back. Back to bright mornings and weird lockers and one on one classes. But not only that; it sent her back to her friends. Dex appeared in the ramblings of Jena, one of Amy’s many friends who could talk for hours about chemicals and science. He clouded her memory when she walked into Chemistry and it threw her back to his laboratory. She thought of him looking at the skinny, freckled covered kid that hung onto her Quantum Theory teacher’s every word. 

When she walked into the library, three days in, and saw the spiraling stacks she remembered Fitz and how he could get lost in a book and never leave the pages. 

Marella could be found in the rare smiles that were Anaz. How sarcastic comments came to her with ease and there was always gossip flooding the halls. 

In her English teacher’s humor, she found Keefe. How Sophie collected pens just because they were there and how doodles filled Amy’s margins. 

Red became her color. In the morning when she didn’t know what to wear Biana flooded her mind. When she didn’t know how to hide her scars she thought of her. Sophie would wear them as a testament to the people she left behind. And when her eyes caught sight of the scars that littered another student’s body, clear on their dark skin, she stood a little taller. They were a testament to survival.

Tam, she remembered when the world was so loud. How he was able to control his impulses, his power, his shadows like her telepathy and inflicting. When she just wanted to hide from it all she remembered him, and kept going.

And the one that came as a surprise to her was Stina. The cold exterior and the sense of superiority that followed Henry, who locked so much of him away in a tiny box, to hide from the rest of the world. And how when you really got to know them there wasn’t a small corner that was as cold as it seemed.

But the one that never really went away was Linh. It didn’t surprise her. No, she knew she would never really get Linh out of her head. So Sophie accepted the small tug that came with seeing people together. As they laughed and smiled and hugged, as two girls held hands firmly; she wondered if that could’ve ever been them. If their broken world would’ve allowed it.

When she thought of them, her hand found her neck and the crystal and she held on tight only to let go. Because that was no longer her, and those people were no longer her’s. Amilia Ruewen did not know them. The crystal was all she had left of them.

And at some point that would have to be okay.

-

“You’re coming to this club with the group tonight,” Amy grinned. Ugh, a night with Amy’s friends? Sounded like torture. 

“Why?” Sophie asked. In her head and in her apartment, they were Sophie and Amy. To the world, their jobs, their school, their friends, they were Amilia and Natalie. 

She didn’t have work until Saturday and she had already finished her homework and Amy knew this. There wasn’t a way she wasn’t going. Amy looked up and smiled all teeth, all eyes. Someone save me, Sophie thought.

Spoiler: it went a lot worse than she expected.

There was a feeling that Sophie knew well. It was why she was here in the first place. The feeling started in her wrists, where she had been bound countless times. It spread up and down to the edges of her fingers which had caused so much pain. The fingers that held weapons and the hands that held both the blood of her enemies and friends. It filled her shoulders with tension and her legs with a need to run. But she couldn’t. She was surrounded by bodies, moving, dancing, controlled by the beat of the drums that shook her core like a war cry. That was because it was a war cry. The image of her friends, the small family she had made, half-dead and filling up every bed in the Healing Center. She had run away from them. That was what she alone had done. Sophie ran from the dangers and the responsibility.

Coward.

“Breathe,” an order. In. Out. One. Two. Three.

“Sophie? Soybean?” Amy’s voice. Amy’s hands on her shoulders. “Hey, hey,” her fingers cradled her jaw. “You’re right here, I got you, you’re okay. We won, it’s over.”

But it wasn’t. At night the demons came back to haunt her. And she would be running from them for the rest of her life.

-

Sophie had told herself when she left the Lost Cities she wasn’t following orders anymore. Little notes and anonymous gifts were things of the past. She told herself this as she took a picture of her shifts for the next week. They flowed through her mind as she wrote notes for a lecture. Words scribbled on papers and typed on documents controlled her whether she wanted them to or not. They set the path and all she had to do was follow it.

This time it wasn’t directed at her. 

“Hey Soph, you got anyone who would send you mail?” Amy called from the hallway.

“Nope!” She had barely even heard what Amy had said, too absorbed by homework.

“Huh, okay.” 

“You sure it’s not for you? It’s from that town like an hour north of campus,” Amy asked a minute later, shoving the envelope in front of her computer. “Get out of your nerd stuff and look at important things.”

Sophie made a noise but took the envelope, “My nerd stuff is important!”

Amy chuckled lightly, “Sure dear, you’re almost as bad as Jena.”

“My lord Amy it has your name on it,” Sophie shook her head, “And Jena is really smart and, unlike you, actually capable of holding an intellectual conversation!”

“Huh, guess I’m blind.” Rolling her eyes, she went back to her homework as Amy tore open the letter. Where was she? Oh yeah-

“Do you know about that road house right outside of town?” 

“Amy I swear if you interrupt me one more time-”

Amy ignored her, “It’s a coupon to there. We could take the gang this weekend.”

“Yeah sure, totally, now just let me finish my homework,” Sophie said, not realizing that she could’ve just agreed to anything.

-

“Nat you can drink?” Amilia asked. It was a running gag.

“Oh shush, I’m not eleven anymore!” Natalie retorted. And she wasn’t eleven, she was twenty-three and Amilia had to remind herself of that often. 

The roadhouse was dark, full of wooden booths. In the corner there was a pool table surrounded by a group of guys. Amilia sat at a table with three of Nat’s friends, her friends, she reminded herself. Thunk! The sound of darts reminded her of throwing stars. Shaking her head slightly she tried not to think about all she had left behind. Amilia, she thought, but it echoed outside her head.

“Amilia!” Tina called, waving her hand in front of her. 

“Sorry, what?” she asked. Get out of your head, she thought sternly.

They all chuckled quietly and tampered off into their different conversations. It was a nice normal, zoning in and out, the words just soft buzzing. She traced the rough wood of the roadhouse with her eyes. The chipped, frayed edges. Dark, daunting, but cozy. The roof domed up to balconies with rooms for the inn part. Sophie didn’t know if anyone actually stayed there anymore. Posts came down into booths, to a karaoke machine in the corner, to the bar that stretched along the entire left side. There was a girl, flannel tight around her waist, short dark hair held up by various barrettes keeping the strands away from her face. The pen and cups flew through her hands with experience and it was mesmerizing to watch. Sophie couldn’t see her face, but there was a tugging feeling that the girl was familiar. From a past life, she thought, and laughed. She had had many past lives. At this point she wouldn’t know which one the girl would’ve been from. If she would just look up, the urge to know who she was got stronger. She was someone to her someone important-

Crash. Her heart pounded, her ears rang. The shattering sound of glass was ironic because it played backwards in her ears. Shattered heart becoming whole.

Sophie, because to that face that was all she was. Her feet moved without her permission. 

Because this girl wasn’t just someone to her, she was everything to her.

She was the hardest to leave behind and the only one that could make her stay.

“I’m supposed to be bartending,” Linh whispered into her shoulder, “and your friends are looking at us.”

“Fuck off, I get the longest hug I want after not seeing you for a decade,” Sophie laughed stubbornly into her shoulder.

Linh turned her head into Sophie’s neck and hummed quietly, “I think that’s fair.”

For the first time she relaxed. The world fell off her shoulders and she realized this was the feeling she had been chasing. Linh smelled like cigar smoke and whiskey and cats (she made a mental note to ask about that later). But she knew, as she shifted closer, holding Linh as tight as she could, after all those years she would still smell like the ocean, she’d still smelled like home.

-

The next morning she found herself passed out in a room that wasn’t her own. An old lamp sat on a wooden nightstand. Next to it, barely lit, was a piece of paper. In big bold letters it read: The Western RoadHouse. In scratchy handwriting there was a note. it filled the entire card,words running into each other. In her very tired state Sophie could barely decipher it.

Hey! Sorry I had to work early and you looked way too peaceful to wake up. How much of last night do you remember? We talked about how I got here, and how you got here. And, well, we talked for hours and did you know the more tired you are the pinker your ears get? And the easier it is the fluster you? You also get clingy and rub your eyes a lot. I ended up having to carry you up to my room and swear to Amy on everything that I had you would be okay. But I realized in that minute in a half of hauling your dead weight and listening to you murmur in your sleep that I had missed you. I ran away because I’ve always been running, but I don’t wanna run anymore. If you’d let me, I’d like to run to you instead. This is me asking if you’ll be my girlfriend, or just go out on a date if you didn’t get that. So yeah? Can I run to you?

For a moment she thought she was dreaming. Then she read it again and all she could do was laugh. Rubbing the sleep out of her eyes she grabbed a pen and paper and wrote a simple message in neat, loopy handwriting.

Well then runaway,

Come running.

She wrote her and Amy’s address at the bottom and slipped it into Linh’s bag on the nightstand on her way out. When Amy pulled up in the van she only raised an eyebrow.

“Did you win?” she asked, turning down the music slightly as Sophie closed the door.

She smiled, mouth crooked, eyes wrinkled, for once unguarded and wild. “Yeah, I think I did.” Whoops and hollers rang out from the back where her friends crowded together. They whooped and hollered and clapped her on the shoulder as Amy pulled the van out of the lot.

Tag list: @enbies-and-felonies, @clearlykeefitz, @ruewen-and-rising, @you-are-the-vacker-legacy @linhamon-roll  @lemontarto  @rainbowtay-11 @an-absolute-travesty @girlofmanyfandoms(if you want to be added or removed come find me here)

[quadrantmodelquotes]

Quadrant Books 2013

The fourth is always the most important, even if it is looked down upon and “doesn’t seem to belong”. This is a fascinating thing, people say we don’t understand the nature of reality. So,

well how is it that we can understand this particle model so well. Is it that we're dumbing nature down? Do we really understand nature? Or are we shaping nature the way we want it? Are these model’s accurate?

Well, physicists say no, we actually really do understand nature, exactly. We can predict things exactly. We understand nature completely. Now the reason why some psychologists say this, is it's because they say according to Darwinian evolution, we were shaped by nature. Nature created us, so it makes sense that we would be able to understand it because we were made out of natural phenomena, and we were shaped by our environments which are natural, by selection pressures in our environments which are natural. On a side note NFs love nature, and science studies nature. So it would make sense that we would understand nature well.

There are however aspects of physics that we don’t understand. For instance quantum mechanics, physicists say, is counterintuitive. We can calculate where atoms will be located, but aspects of quantum mechanics, some schools and interpretations of quantum mechanics say, are not understandable rationally to humans and go beyond common sense. Well, again, biologists say this makes sense because humans evolved in the mesocosm, on planet Earth, to navigate within the realm where Newtonian mechanics is the dominating factor shaping phenomena that help our survival. It is Newtonian mechanics that determines whether our spear strikes the animal. But still, somehow, we discovered the nature of the quantum world and can calculate happenings within the microcosmic realm.

Psychology is different, but it encompasses all of these. Our psychology is shaped by physics. The Orch Or model of consciousness says quantum mechanical processes are integral in thoughts. It is because of the quantum mechanical nature of thoughts taking form in microtubules of the brain that we have the semblance of free will. Fascinatingly, the ancient Greek Philosopher Democritus argued something similar, which he called “atomic swerve”, explaining that particles in human’s minds have random properties in their actions which allow for the possibility of free will.

Psychology is determined by chemistry. The brain is soaked in chemicals. To understand psychology, you have to be aware of chemical processes affecting thoughts and the mind. Also think about this, we talked about how the second and fourth quadrant are opposites but also are always very connected, a lot of psychologists say that psychology is all about just brain chemistry. Psychologists also argue that brain chemistry is affected by thousands of years of evolution, so a psychologist needs to understand biology, like evolutionary biology.

Okay, then there's the possible fifth quadrant, sociology. But Comte questions if this is a necessary fifth. The essential sciences can be reduced to those four. The fourth is always transcendent. The fifth is questionable and ultra transcendent.

Okay, so we started off with physics. Physics is the most elemental of the sciences. We talked about the Standard Model of particle physics. Let's go to another thing I studied. For the last four years I went to every class that they have at UCSD and you may think, “Wow, you're probably just looking for things that fulfill the model.” Actually the honest truth, there's more than I can put down that fulfills the model. Everything almost fulfills the model pretty much, and it's difficult for me to say everything that fulfills the model. I’m overwhelmed by the task. I studied every single subject at UCSD and the quadrant model was dominant in everything. Every single subject this quadrant pattern presented itself as predominant. Let's continue on with physics. So we have the laws of kinematics. The kinematic equations describe the motions of bodies in the universe. The kinematic equations were the first thing I

[thesupergamercorpus]

Today I wanted to write about one of my ‘heroes’ or inspirations. The way I look at them is somewhat like this quote:

“Trophies and great men are not only to be gazed upon, but also inspire to do the same.”

I will write down one of the best stories I have read about John von Neumann. But first of all, this is the list he is known for. I will make the ones I think are most popular bold:

Abelian von Neumann algebra, Affiliated operator, Amenable group, Arithmetic logic unit, Artificial viscosity, Axiom of regularity, Axiom of limitation of size, Backward induction, Blast wave (fluid dynamics), Bounded set (topological vector space), Carry-save adder, Cellular automata, Class (set theory), Computer virus, Commutation theorem, Continuous geometry, Coupling constants, Decoherence theory (quantum mechanics), Density matrix, Direct integral, Doubly stochastic matrix, Duality Theorem, Durbin–Watson statistic, EDVAC, Ergodic theory, Explosive lenses, Game theory, Hilbert’s fifth problem, Hyperfinite type II factor, Inner model, Inner model theory, Interior point method, Koopman–von Neumann classical mechanics, Lattice theory, Lifting theory, Merge sort, Middle-square method, Minimax theorem, Monte, Carlo method, Mutual assured destruction, Normal-form game, Operation Greenhouse, Operator theory, Pointless topology, Polarization identity, Pseudorandomness, Pseudorandom number generator, Quantum logic, Quantum mutual information, Quantum statistical mechanics, Radiation implosion, Rank ring, Self-replication, Software whitening, Sorted array, Spectral theory, Standard probability space, Stochastic computing, Stone–von Neumann theorem, Subfactor, Ultrastrong topology, Von Neumann algebra, Von Neumann architecture, Von Neumann bicommutant theorem, Von Neumann cardinal assignment, Von Neumann cellular automaton, Von Neumann interpretation, Von Neumann measurement scheme, Von Neumann ordinals, Von Neumann universal constructor, Von Neumann entropy, Von Neumann Equation, Von Neumann neighborhood, Von Neumann paradox, Von Neumann regular ring, Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory, Von Neumann universe, Von Neumann spectral theorem, Von Neumann conjecture, Von Neumann ordinal, Von Neumann’s inequality, Von Neumann’s trace inequality, Von Neumann stability analysis, Von Neumann extractor, Von Neumann ergodic theorem, Von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem, ZND detonation model

Cellular automata → this one appears to function and replicate like DNA. Cellular automata preceded the discovery of the structure of DNA.

Decoherence theory (quantum mechanics) → quantum states get continuously ‘pushed around’ by external influences (like being observed e.g. the double-slit experiment), which can change their original state. A quantum state resides in a ‘superposition’. Superposition simply means a state where two or more ‘states’ are combined, like an up and down state simultaneously. When that is the case, a quantum system resides in coherence. When observing that system, decoherence, or wave function collapse happens e.g. the original quantum system both had an up and down state simultaneously, but after being observed, now only has either an up state or a down state.

Merge sort → see the chapter 08/31/2019—Top-down, bottom-up thinking, sorting algorithms, and working memory where I discuss this computer sorting algorithm and combine it with top-down and bottom-up thinking.

Self-replication → a machine replicating itself. If machines are also able to upgrade themselves with each replication, a so-called technological singularity can occur (Google it).

Von Neumann architecture → essentially how our computers are built.

Now onto some stories of him. Most information is taken from Wikipedia.

Examination and Ph.D.

He graduated as a chemical engineer from ETH Zurich in 1926 (although Wigner says that von Neumann was never very attached to the subject of chemistry), and passed his final examinations for his Ph.D. in mathematics simultaneously with his chemical engineering degree, of which Wigner wrote, “Evidently a Ph.D. thesis and examination did not constitute an appreciable effort.”

Mastery of mathematics

Stan Ulam, who knew von Neumann well, described his mastery of mathematics this way: “Most mathematicians know one method. For example, Norbert Wiener had mastered Fourier transforms. Some mathematicians have mastered two methods and might really impress someone who knows only one of them. John von Neumann had mastered three methods.” He went on to explain that the three methods were:

A facility with the symbolic manipulation of linear operators;

An intuitive feeling for the logical structure of any new mathematical theory;

An intuitive feeling for the combinatorial superstructure of new theories.

Edward Teller wrote that “Nobody knows all science, not even von Neumann did. But as for mathematics, he contributed to every part of it except number theory and topology. That is, I think, something unique.”

Cognitive abilities

As a six-year-old, he could divide two eight-digit numbers in his head and converse in Ancient Greek. When he was sent at the age of 15 to study advanced calculus under analyst Gábor Szegő, Szegő was so astounded with the boy’s talent in mathematics that he was brought to tears on their first meeting.

Hans Bethe on von Neumann

Nobel Laureate Hans Bethe said “I have sometimes wondered whether a brain like von Neumann’s does not indicate a species superior to that of man”, and later Bethe wrote that “von Neumann’s brain indicated a new species, an evolution beyond man”.

Edward Teller

Edward Teller admitted that he “never could keep up with John von Neumann.”

Teller also said “von Neumann would carry on a conversation with my 3-year-old son, and the two of them would talk as equals, and I sometimes wondered if he used the same principle when he talked to the rest of us.”

George Dantzig

George Dantzig is the mathematician who thought that two problems on the blackboard were homework. He solved them and handed them, albeit a bit later, so he thought they were overdue.

Here’s the plot twist: They were two famous unsolved problems in statistics with which the mathematics community struggled for decades.

When George Dantzig brought von Neumann an unsolved problem in linear programming “as I would to an ordinary mortal”, on which there had been no published literature, he was astonished when von Neumann said “Oh, that!” before offhandedly giving a lecture of over an hour, explaining how to solve the problem using the hitherto unconceived theory of duality.

Johnny as a student

George Pólya, whose lectures at ETH Zürich von Neumann attended as a student, said “Johnny was the only student I was ever afraid of. If in the course of a lecture I stated an unsolved problem, the chances were he’d come to me at the end of the lecture with the complete solution scribbled on a slip of paper.”

Nobel Prizes

Peter Lax wrote, “To gain a measure of von Neumann’s achievements, consider that had he lived a normal span of years, he would certainly have been a recipient of a Nobel Prize in economics. And if there were Nobel Prizes in computer science and mathematics, he would have been honored by these, too. So the writer of these letters should be thought of as a triple Nobel laureate or, possibly, a ​3 1⁄2-fold winner, for his work in physics, in particular, quantum mechanics”.

von Neumann as a teacher

Von Neumann was the subject of many dotty professor stories. He supposedly had the habit of simply writing answers to homework assignments on the board (the method of solution being, of course, obvious). One time one of his students tried to get more helpful information by asking if there was another way to solve the problem. Von Neumann looked blank for a moment, thought, and then answered, “Yes.”

Henry Ford

Henry Ford had ordered a dynamo for one of his plants. The dynamo didn’t work, and not even the manufacturers could figure out why. A Ford employee told his boss that von Neumann was “the smartest man in America,” so Ford called von Neumann and asked him to come out and take a look at the dynamo.

Von Neumann came, looked at the schematics, walked around the dynamo, then took out a pencil. He marked a line on the outside casing and said, “If you’ll go in and cut the coil here, the dynamo will work fine.”

They cut the coil, and the dynamo did work fine. Ford then told von Neumann to send him a bill for the work. Von Neumann sent Ford a bill for $5,000. Ford was astounded – $5,000 was a lot in the 1950s – and asked von Neumann for an itemised account. Here’s what he submitted:

Drawing a line with the pencil: $1

Knowing where to draw the line with the pencil: $4,999

Ford paid the bill.

David Blackwell

Blackwell did a year of postdoctoral research as a fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study in 1941 after receiving a Rosenwald Fellowship. There he met John von Neumann, who asked Blackwell to discuss his Ph.D. thesis with him. Blackwell, who believed that von Neumann was just being polite and not genuinely interested in his work, did not approach him until von Neumann himself asked him again a few months later. According to Blackwell, “He (von Neumann) listened to me talk about this rather obscure subject and in ten minutes he knew more about it than I did.”

von Neumann was the only genius

Von Neumann entered the Lutheran Fasori Evangélikus Gimnázium in 1911. This was one of the best schools in Budapest, part of a brilliant education system designed for the elite. Under the Hungarian system, children received all their education at the one gymnasium. Despite being run by the Lutheran Church, the majority of its pupils were Jewish. The school system produced a generation noted for intellectual achievement. Wigner was a year ahead of von Neumann at the Lutheran School. When asked why the Hungary of his generation had produced so many geniuses, Wigner, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963, replied that von Neumann was the only genius.”

[raptorginger]

Chemistry & Conservation: Chapter 7 - Monday, or Nothing to Remember

After her friends had left, Rey had tried to switch into her usual Saturday routine.  She halfheartedly threw some laundry in the wash, straightened her bedroom and study, and pushed the vacuum around.  She found chores left her mind too idle, too prone to wandering to thoughts of Ren.  

She let out a frustrated snarl and threw the books she’d been picking up near her couch into the nearby corner.  She stomped to her study, dragging out her paint box, easel, and a canvas to the living room.  Dragging a large piece of drop cloth out from its hiding place under the couch, she set up her easel and canvas.  She dragged a couple stools over from the breakfast bar, setting the paint box on one.  Before she sat, she hit the power button on her stereo remote and blared some loud alternative music while she readied her palette.  She didn’t worry about the neighbors.  Mrs. Lao had had the brownstone sound proofed years ago after an underground rap group, Figran D’An and the Modal Tones or something, had moved in next door.

Satisfied with her music and paint choices, Rey picked up her brush and began to put paint to canvas.  She never thought that much about what she was painting.  She more or less went where her feelings told her.  She found that was a good way to excise unwanted thoughts.  Sometimes, the result was abstract, a deluge of color and brush strokes.  Other times there was a definite image, formed precisely.  Today was a mix of both.  The deep warm blues, greens, and yellows flecked with white suggested a night sky.   Large black and brown shapes resembled trees and vegetation.  A reflective rippling surface was a lake, mirroring the night sky.  Beside the lake, two figures stood in a tender embrace.  The moon reflected off their delicate faces, revealing expressions of warmth and love.  They wore fanciful clothes, she in grey, and him in deepest black.  

Rey refused to acknowledge that the figures bore any resemblance to her.  Or Ren.  They were simply generic figures, she reasoned.  As she was cleaning her brushes, she heard a knock at the door.

“It’s open!” she called.

Mrs. Lao came in, the smell of a delicious dinner following her.  “Dinner’s on, my dear!”

“Be down as soon as I clean up, Mrs. Lao.”

Mrs. Lao nodded, “Sounds good. My my! What a beautiful painting you’ve done my Rey!”

Rey blushed.  “Thanks.  Just something that was in my mind I guess.”

Mrs. Lao approached the painting, squinting to take in the details.  “At first glance, it seems like a happy or romantic painting, but I feel a sadness the longer I look.”

Rey dried her hands with a towel as she made her way to Mrs. Lao’s side.  “Really?”

Mrs. Lao nodded.  “The lovers you’ve painted here, they seem happy in each other, but their surroundings...I feel a sadness there.  I’m not sure, I’m just a silly old lady,” Mrs. Lao laughed.

Giving Mrs. Lao a brief side hug, Rey said, “You’re not a silly old lady, Mrs. Lao.”

“You’re very kind to say so, dear Rey.  Let’s go eat.”

They’d eaten Rey’s favorite, Cha ca La Vong, a specialty using grilled fish and rice noodles from where Mrs. Lao was from in Vietnam.  Mrs. Lao peppered her with questions about her work in the Conservation Lab and her new class.  Rey had tried to seem engaged and enthusiastic, answering her questions in detail.  If Mrs. Lao thought Rey was leaving something out, she didn’t mention it.  Rey was grateful for that.  Rey left after tea, promising Mrs. Lao that she wouldn’t stay up late.  

***

Sunday had passed quickly.  Rey had been able to focus on her class, finalizing her syllabus and lesson plans for the semester.  She sent several articles and her syllabus to Printing, making a mental note to pick them up on Monday.  She made a checklist for the day, so she wouldn’t forget anything.  Also so that she could focus on her work in the Conservation Lab the rest of the week.  She was about to start an important assignment for Special Collections, and she wanted a clear head.  She needed to set up her office in the Chemistry Department, print her class roster, organize her assignments and get those printed, there was the faculty welcome back...thing in the afternoon.  Her head shot up from her laptop.  Ren.  He’d be there.  She added one more thing to her to do list, a rubber band.  It had been a trick she’d learned somewhere along the way.  She wore a rubber band around her wrist and snapped it when she felt uncomfortable or embarrassed.  She found it helped her refocus.  She hoped to God it would do the trick.    

***

Rey had made her way to campus early Monday morning, stopping to coffee from Maz’s.  She was in her new “office.”  It was a generous term.  She was pretty sure it had been a closet at one point that had been turned into an office space for grad students.  Doctor Hux had begrudgingly assigned her a space in the building, so her students wouldn’t have to track her down in the Conservation Lab on the University’s South Campus.  It was fine.  She wouldn’t be here that often anyway, and there was room for a table and two chairs.  It even had an outlet.

She’d brought a small desktop file organizer and organized her class papers into the different slots.  She had a stack of the books she’d assigned her students in the opposite corner.  Her laptop was plugged in, and she was typing a debrief for her boss on her last assignment for the Lab.  It had been a relatively simple one, the rehousing of one of the University architect’s papers.  They had needed some straightening out and a minor clean up.  Galyn Erso had been a meticulously neat man, so his records weren’t in too bad of shape.  She glanced at the computer’s clock and nearly choked.  She was going to be late.  The get together was in the Asoka Graduate Building’s main reception hall.  It wasn’t far, but Rey would have to leave now to make it on time.

“Shit!” Rey snapped her laptop shut, yanking the power cord out from the outlet.  She stuffed the machine into her bag, grabbed her keys, and ran out the door, slamming it behind her.  As she turned to run down the hall, she smacked into something very solid and very warm.

“OhmyGod, I’m so sorry!” she blurted all in a rush.  “I’m running late and I wasn’t…” she trailed off as she looked up at the figure who had grabbed her elbows to steady her, momentarily stunned as deep brown eyes held hers.

“Looking where you were going?” Ren finished, helpfully.

“Yeah,” Rey replied, an involuntary blush rising to her cheeks.

Ren smiled, still holding her.  “No problem.”  

Silence swarmed around them for a moment as they simply stared at each other, neither quite knowing what to say.  Ren realized he was still holding her and reluctantly let her go.

Rey cleared her throat, taking a step back.  “We’re going to be late.”

“Right.”  They both started walking briskly down the hall.  

They had made their way out of the Chemistry building before Ren couldn’t take the awkward silence anymore.  Rey was looking anywhere but at him, nervously toying with the strap of her bag.

“Rey,” Ren said, running his hand through his hair. Not knowing what to say next, Ren let out a deep sigh.

“Why were you still at the office?” Rey blurted out.  “I thought you would have made your way over early.  Don’t you have to give a speech or something?”  She rambled when she was nervous, and she did not want to talk about whatever he was trying to talk about.  Keep it professional.

Ren looked down at her quizzically but said nothing.  He returned his gaze forward and replied, “Is that really what you want to talk about right now?”

Rey looked up at him, her hazel eyes steely, and replied firmly, “Yes.”

Ren shrugged, “Alright.  I was working on a computer model of a chemical catalyst I’m trying to develop, and I lost track of time.  And yes, I am supposed to give a brief speech,” Ren grumbled.  

Rey’s eyes grew wide.  “Really? To what end?” she asked, her embarrassment and unease forgotten.

Ren gave her a lopsided grin.  It was adorable, Rey thought.  “I want to engineer a cooling agent with the catalyst.  Right now it’s only in my head and on the computer.  I’m hoping that the University has the resources I need to finally engineer the chemical.”

Ren grew increasingly animated as he talked, Rey noticed.  “What would the applications be for this catalyst?”  she asked.  Their pace had slowed, but neither noticed.

Ren looked at her, a mischievous glint in his eyes.  “Time travel,” he whispered conspiratorially.  

“You can’t be serious,” Rey laughed.

“I’m only partly kidding.  I’m thinking it will have implications for quantum physics though, which indirectly could mean time travel.”

Rey’s hazel eyes glittered, “That’s incredible, Ren.”

A faint blush creeped into Ren’s cheeks.  He replied sheepishly, “Thanks, Rey.”

Rey grabbed Ren’s shirt sleeve, “No really! That’s amazing!”  He looked down at her and smiled, his warm brown eyes glowing.  Rey felt her insides turn warm and mushy.  She quickly let go of his sleeve, returning her attention to putting one foot in front of the other.

“What is it you do, exactly?  Why were you running late?” Ren asked, stuffing his hands in his pockets.

“I was debriefing my boss at the Lab about my last assignment.”  She glanced at him, eyes dancing.  “Nothing as interesting as time travel.”

Ren laughed.  “The Chem Lab?”

“No.  I’m actually a conservator.  I work primarily in the Conservation Lab on South Campus.”

“What are you doing in the Chemistry building then?”

Rey bristled, getting defensive as she always did.  “The University wanted me to teach a class this term.  My doctorate is in chemistry, and they’ve had enough student interest to build a class.”

“Hey, no need to get defensive! I think it’s awesome what you do,” Ren said gently.

“I’m sorry,” Rey said surprised.  “Most people in your department don’t consider what I do a science or something worth doing.  Do you know much about conservation?”

“I mean, a little, just in the definition sense.  Why would they think that?”  Ren asked.

Rey shrugged sadly.  “I have no idea.  Anyway, I was typing an email to my boss about Galyn Erso’s papers, and I lost track of time.”

“Wait, the Galyn Erso?”

Rey laughed, “Yeah, the Galyn Erso.”  

They spent the rest of their time to the Ahsoka Graduate Building talking about Galyn Erso and his additions to the University decades ago.  Walking into the reception hall, most of the Chemistry Department was already there, milling about the room cocktails in hand.  Rey fell silent, growing nervous.

“I see you’ve met our darling Doctor Jinn,” Doctor Armitage Hux practically sneered as Ren made his way into the room with Rey.  Ren saw the light go out of Rey’s eyes, replaced by an expression of stoicism, her hands clasped behind her back.  He heard a faint snap! beside him.  He gave Rey a quizzical look, but her eyes remained on Hux.

“How good to see you again, Doctor Hux,” Rey said tonelessly.

Hux sneered at Rey, or perhaps it was a smile, and turned to Ren.  “Doctor Solo.  So glad you decided to join us here at the University of Hosnia.  I’d like to introduce you to some of the colleagues you’ll be working with here.”  Hux turned on his heel, apparently expecting Ren to follow.  Ren looked at Rey, concerned.

“Go,” Rey said with a small smile.

Ren followed the gaunt red haired man reluctantly.  Looking back, he saw that Rey had gotten a glass of champagne and was talking to some of the chemistry graduate students.  He half listened as Hux introduced him to group after group, parading him around the room like he was a prize dog.  His palms began to get sweaty, which always signalled an incoming sense of panic.  Scanning the room for something to calm himself down, Ren’s eyes always found Rey.  She was a bit more animated than when they had walked in.  The grad students were making her laugh.  Ren could hear it, just beneath all the chatter of the people he was supposed to be engaged with.  It was a beautiful sound.  Then, he saw something that made him frown.  Around her left wrist was an angry red ring.  What the hell?

“Doctor Solo,” Hux had snuck up behind him while he was trying to figure out what was happening to Rey’s hand, “perhaps you’d like to address the room?”

“Of course, Doctor.”  It was the last thing he wanted to do.  He made his way to the podium and brought the room to attention.  He hated giving addresses or speeches like this.  But, in his position, it was often unavoidable.  He’d practiced a few calming techniques he’d found in the Internet, but they weren’t super effective.  He scanned the sea of watching eyes, panic starting to settle in earnestly, and saw Rey.  She was watching him intently, concern written on her face.  When he met her gaze, she gave him a small reassuring smile.  He began talking, not really conscious of what he was saying as he’d memorized his speech by rote.  Whatever he said, it must have come off well because the applause was enthusiastic.  Having a politician mother had its perks he supposed.

He stepped down and accepted a tumbler of whiskey from an elderly professor.  Several clapped him on the back as he made his way around the room, setting his whiskey down discreetly.  Alcohol never helped his attacks.  The attention sent him spiraling further into a panic attack.  He was going to Rey, he realized.  He craved her nearness, her smell.  He had finally made it to where he’d seen her from the podium, but she wasn’t there.  He asked a nearby grad student where she’d gone.  After a bit of stammering, the grad managed to say that Doctor Jinn had to leave.  Ren turned for the door just as she was exiting with a few others.  He made his way after her.  Coming up behind her, Ren grabbed her wrist, the uninjured one he made sure.

“Doctor Jinn,” he said, more urgently than he meant to.

Rey turned, frowning up at him a bit.  “Yes, Doctor Solo?” she replied.  

Ren waited until the others had left before he pulled her to a side hallway away from the noise of the reception.  He wasn’t thinking rationally he realized.  He just needed her.

“What the hell are you…” Rey whispered as he crushed her in his arms, his head dropping to her shoulder.  He focused on taking deep breaths, breathing in her scent.  She smelled of something warm and floral, something like how he thought summer should smell.

Realizing he wasn’t quite himself, Rey slowly wrapped her arms around his middle, making soothing circles on his back.  “Hey, it’s alright,” she whispered to him as she smoothed her hands over the strained muscles in his back.  Eventually, she felt his muscles relax, his breathing growing more slow and even.

“Panic attack?” she asked sympathetically.

She felt him nod in response, nuzzling further into the crook of her neck.  She held him tighter.  

Eventually, Ren released her, but he didn’t step back.  He reached for her wrist, the one with the rubber band.  He held it up.  It was red and raw.  “Rey, what is this?” he asked concerned, running his thumb gently over the marks the band had made.

Rey made a face and stepped back.  “It’s how I deal with my discomfort and embarrassment.  And wanting to punch Hux in the face.”  

Ren continued to soothe the marks, as if he could make them go away, looking intently at Rey.  She couldn’t break his gaze, her lips slightly parted, as if she’d been about to say something.  Still holding her gaze, Ren brought her wrist to his lips, kissing the tender flesh gently.

“Ren, you can’t.  We agreed.  Please,” she said quietly, desperately.  Logically, Rey knew what they’d agreed to, what was best, but the larger part of her didn’t want him to stop.

“Rey, I...I think we need a new agreement,” Ren said huskily.

Rey’s eyes widened.  This is what he’d tried to say earlier.  Panic overtook her, and she tore her wrist out of his hand.  “No, Ren.  I can’t do that.”

“Rey...” He tried to reach for her.

“No!” she whispered urgently, twisting away from him.  “I can’t.  I just….can’t give you what you want.”

Before Ren could reply, Rey turned and ran down the hall, every nerve in her body screaming at her to turn back.

[bharatiyamedia-blog]

By turning molecular buildings into sounds, researchers achieve perception into protein buildings and create new variations -- ScienceDaily

http://tinyurl.com/yxdqlo32 Wish to create a model new sort of protein which may have helpful properties? No downside. Simply hum a number of bars. In a shocking marriage of science and artwork, researchers at MIT have developed a system for changing the molecular buildings of proteins, the essential constructing blocks of all residing beings, into audible sound that resembles musical passages. Then, reversing the method, they will introduce some variations into the music and convert it again into new proteins by no means earlier than seen in nature. Though it isn’t fairly so simple as buzzing a brand new protein into existence, the brand new system comes shut. It gives a scientific manner of translating a protein’s sequence of amino acids right into a musical sequence, utilizing the bodily properties of the molecules to find out the sounds. Though the sounds are transposed with the intention to carry them inside the audible vary for people, the tones and their relationships are primarily based on the precise vibrational frequencies of every amino acid molecule itself, computed utilizing theories from quantum chemistry. The system was developed by Markus Buehler, the McAfee Professor of Engineering and head of the Division of Civil and Environmental Engineering at MIT, together with postdoc Chi Hua Yu and two others. As described within the journal ACS Nano, the system interprets the 20 kinds of amino acids, the constructing blocks that be part of collectively in chains to type all proteins, right into a 20-tone scale. Any protein’s lengthy sequence of amino acids then turns into a sequence of notes. Whereas such a scale sounds unfamiliar to folks accustomed to Western musical traditions, listeners can readily acknowledge the relationships and variations after familiarizing themselves with the sounds. Buehler says that after listening to the ensuing melodies, he’s now in a position to distinguish sure amino acid sequences that correspond to proteins with particular structural features. “That is a beta sheet,” he would possibly say, or “that is an alpha helix.” Studying the language of proteins The entire idea, Buehler explains, is to get a greater deal with on understanding proteins and their huge array of variations. Proteins make up the structural materials of pores and skin, bone, and muscle, however are additionally enzymes, signaling chemical substances, molecular switches, and a bunch of different useful supplies that make up the equipment of all residing issues. However their buildings, together with the way in which they fold themselves into the shapes that always decide their features, are exceedingly difficult. “They’ve their very own language, and we do not know the way it works,” he says. “We do not know what makes a silk protein a silk protein or what patterns replicate the features present in an enzyme. We do not know the code.” By translating that language into a distinct type that people are significantly well-attuned to, and that permits completely different elements of the data to be encoded in several dimensions — pitch, quantity, and length — Buehler and his crew hope to glean new insights into the relationships and variations between completely different households of proteins and their variations, and use this as a manner of exploring the various doable tweaks and modifications of their construction and performance. As with music, the construction of proteins is hierarchical, with completely different ranges of construction at completely different scales of size or time. The crew then used a synthetic intelligence system to review the catalog of melodies produced by all kinds of various proteins. That they had the AI system introduce slight adjustments within the musical sequence or create fully new sequences, after which translated the sounds again into proteins that correspond to the modified or newly designed variations. With this course of they have been in a position to create variations of present proteins — for instance of 1 present in spider silk, certainly one of nature’s strongest supplies — thus making new proteins in contrast to any produced by evolution. Though the researchers themselves might not know the underlying guidelines, “the AI has realized the language of how proteins are designed,” and it might probably encode it to create variations of present variations, or fully new protein designs, Buehler says. Provided that there are “trillions and trillions” of potential combos, he says, in the case of creating new proteins “you would not be capable to do it from scratch, however that is what the AI can do.” “Composing” new proteins By utilizing such a system, he says coaching the AI system with a set of knowledge for a specific class of proteins would possibly take a number of days, however it might probably then produce a design for a brand new variant inside microseconds. “No different methodology comes shut,” he says. “The shortcoming is the mannequin does not inform us what’s actually occurring inside. We simply know it really works.” This fashion of encoding construction into music does replicate a deeper actuality. “While you take a look at a molecule in a textbook, it is static,” Buehler says. “But it surely’s not static in any respect. It is shifting and vibrating. Each little bit of matter is a set of vibrations. And we will use this idea as a manner of describing matter.” The strategy doesn’t but enable for any type of directed modifications — any adjustments in properties resembling mechanical energy, elasticity, or chemical reactivity will probably be basically random. “You continue to must do the experiment,” he says. When a brand new protein variant is produced, “there is not any strategy to predict what it should do.” The crew additionally created musical compositions developed from the sounds of amino acids, which outline this new 20-tone musical scale. The artwork items they constructed consist totally of the sounds generated from amino acids. “There are not any artificial or pure devices used, displaying how this new supply of sounds might be utilized as a artistic platform,” Buehler says. Musical motifs derived from each naturally present proteins and AI-generated proteins are used all through the examples, and all of the sounds, together with some that resemble bass or snare drums, are additionally generated from the sounds of amino acids. The researchers have created a free Android smartphone app, referred to as Amino Acid Synthesizer, to play the sounds of amino acids and file protein sequences as musical compositions. Source link

[dorcasrempel]

Translating proteins into music, and back

Want to create a brand new type of protein that might have useful properties? No problem. Just hum a few bars.

In a surprising marriage of science and art, researchers at MIT have developed a system for converting the molecular structures of proteins, the basic building blocks of all living beings, into audible sound that resembles musical passages. Then, reversing the process, they can introduce some variations into the music and convert it back into new proteins never before seen in nature.

Although it’s not quite as simple as humming a new protein into existence, the new system comes close. It provides a systematic way of translating a protein’s sequence of amino acids into a musical sequence, using the physical properties of the molecules to determine the sounds. Although the sounds are transposed in order to bring them within the audible range for humans, the tones and their relationships are based on the actual vibrational frequencies of each amino acid molecule itself, computed using theories from quantum chemistry.

The system was developed by Markus Buehler, the McAfee Professor of Engineering and head of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at MIT, along with postdoc Chi Hua Yu and two others. As described today in the journal ACS Nano, the system translates the 20 types of amino acids, the building blocks that join together in chains to form all proteins, into a 20-tone scale. Any protein’s long sequence of amino acids then becomes a sequence of notes.

While such a scale sounds unfamiliar to people accustomed to Western musical traditions, listeners can readily recognize the relationships and differences after familiarizing themselves with the sounds. Buehler says that after listening to the resulting melodies, he is now able to distinguish certain amino acid sequences that correspond to proteins with specific structural functions. “That’s a beta sheet,” he might say, or “that’s an alpha helix.”

Learning the language of proteins

The whole concept, Buehler explains, is to get a better handle on understanding proteins and their vast array of variations. Proteins make up the structural material of skin, bone, and muscle, but are also enzymes, signaling chemicals, molecular switches, and a host of other functional materials that make up the machinery of all living things. But their structures, including the way they fold themselves into the shapes that often determine their functions, are exceedingly complicated. “They have their own language, and we don’t know how it works,” he says. “We don’t know what makes a silk protein a silk protein or what patterns reflect the functions found in an enzyme. We don’t know the code.”

By translating that language into a different form that humans are particularly well-attuned to, and that allows different aspects of the information to be encoded in different dimensions — pitch, volume, and duration — Buehler and his team hope to glean new insights into the relationships and differences between different families of proteins and their variations, and use this as a way of exploring the many possible tweaks and modifications of their structure and function. As with music, the structure of proteins is hierarchical, with different levels of structure at different scales of length or time.

The new method translates an amino acid sequence of proteins into this sequence of percussive and rhythmic sounds. Courtesy of Markus Buehler.

The team then used an artificial intelligence system to study the catalog of melodies produced by a wide variety of different proteins. They had the AI system introduce slight changes in the musical sequence or create completely new sequences, and then translated the sounds back into proteins that correspond to the modified or newly designed versions. With this process they were able to create variations of existing proteins — for example of one found in spider silk, one of nature’s strongest materials — thus making new proteins unlike any produced by evolution.

The percussive, rhythmic, and musical sounds heard here are generated entirely from amino acid sequences. Courtesy of Markus Buehler.

Although the researchers themselves may not know the underlying rules, “the AI has learned the language of how proteins are designed,” and it can encode it to create variations of existing versions, or completely new protein designs, Buehler says. Given that there are “trillions and trillions” of potential combinations, he says, when it comes to creating new proteins “you wouldn’t be able to do it from scratch, but that’s what the AI can do.”

“Composing” new proteins

By using such a system, he says training the AI system with a set of data for a particular class of proteins might take a few days, but it can then produce a design for a new variant within microseconds. “No other method comes close,” he says. “The shortcoming is the model doesn’t tell us what’s really going on inside. We just know it works.”

This way of encoding structure into music does reflect a deeper reality. “When you look at a molecule in a textbook, it’s static,” Buehler says. “But it’s not static at all. It’s moving and vibrating. Every bit of matter is a set of vibrations. And we can use this concept as a way of describing matter.”

The method does not yet allow for any kind of directed modifications — any changes in properties such as mechanical strength, elasticity, or chemical reactivity will be essentially random. “You still need to do the experiment,” he says. When a new protein variant is produced, “there’s no way to predict what it will do.”

The team also created musical compositions developed from the sounds of amino acids, which define this new 20-tone musical scale. The art pieces they constructed consist entirely of the sounds generated from amino acids. “There are no synthetic or natural instruments used, showing how this new source of sounds can be utilized as a creative platform,” Buehler says. Musical motifs derived from both naturally existing proteins and AI-generated proteins are used throughout the examples, and all the sounds, including some that resemble bass or snare drums, are also generated from the sounds of amino acids.

The researchers have created a free Android smartphone app, called Amino Acid Synthesizer, to play the sounds of amino acids and record protein sequences as musical compositions.

“Markus Buehler has been gifted with a most creative soul, and his explorations into the inner workings of biomolecules are advancing our understanding of the mechanical response of biological materials in a most significant manner,” says Marc Meyers, a professor of materials science at the University of California at San Diego, who was not involved in this work.

Meyers adds, “The focusing of this imagination to music is a novel and intriguing direction. This is experimental music at its best. The rhythms of life, including the pulsations of our heart, were the initial sources of repetitive sounds that engendered the marvelous world of music. Markus has descended into the nanospace to extract the rythms of the amino acids, the building blocks of life.”

“Protein sequences are complex, as are comparisons between protein sequences,” says Anthony Weiss, a professor of biochemistry and molecular biotechnology at the University of Sydney, Australia, who also was not connected to this work. The MIT team “provides an impressive, entertaining and unusual approach to accessing and interpreting this complexity. … The approach benefits from our innate ability to hear complex musical patterns. Through harmony and discord, we now have an entertaining and useful tool to compare and contrast amino acid sequences.”

The team also included research scientist Zhao Qin and Francisco Martin-Martinez at MIT. The work was supported by the U.S. Office of Naval Research and the National Institutes of Health.

Translating proteins into music, and back syndicated from https://osmowaterfilters.blogspot.com/

[educomiq-com]

Chemical sciences Study material is complete handwritten class notes by one of the best coaching for NET CSIR IIT-JAM possesses the following 15 thick booklets

1. Chemical bonding 2. Chemical Kinetics 3. Coordination Chemistry 4. Electrochemistry 5. Group solid aromacity 6. Oraganic Synthesis 7. Organometallic Chemistry 8. Pericyclic Reaction 9. Quantum Chemistry 10. Reaction Mechanism 11. Reagents 12. Spectroscopy 13. Sterochemistry 14. Thermodynamics

Total No of pages 3400 Above are according to the syllabus of NET CSIR and notes are legible and spiral bound one.

[jansegers]

Simple English Word List

SIMPLE1540 : a simple English wikipedia word list based on the XML export of all articles related to the nine major groups: Everyday life, Geography, History, Knowledge, Language, Literature, People, Religion, and Science and retaining all word forms appearing 7 times or more in this corpus. The total number of words in this corpus is well over the 100.000 words. a A.D. ability able about above absence abstinence abstract academic academy accent accept access accord account across act action active activity actual actually ad add addition adherent adjective adult advance advice affect after again against age agnostic agnosticism ago agree agreement agriculture air alcohol all allow ally almost alone along alphabet also although always amateur amendment among amount an analysis ancient and angel animal annals anonymous another answer anthropomorphism any anyone anything aphasia appear apple apply approach archaeology architecture area argue argument around arrange art article artificial artist ask aspect associate association astronomy at atheism atheist atomic attack attempt attribute audience author authority available average avoid award away B.C. baby back background backpack bad bah balance band baptism base basic basis battle BCE be bear beautiful beauty because become bed bee before begin behavior behind being belief believe believing belong below best better between beyond bias biblical bibliography big billion biological biology birth bit black blind blood blue body book born both bottom boundary box boy brain branch bring brown buffalo build building bull burn business but by c. ca. calendar call can cancer canon capital caption car carbon card carry case cassette cat category cathedral catholic cause cell center central century cerebral certain change chapel chapter character chemical chemistry child china China choice choir choose chronicle church circumcise circumcision cite citizen city civil civilian civilization claim clan class classical cleanup clear clergy click climate close closer clothes clothing coast coauthor code codex cognitive col cold collection college colonization colony color column com come commentary commission common commonly communicate communication communion communist community companion company compare competition complete complex compose composer computer concept conception concern condition confuse confusion congregational connect connection conquer conquest consciousness consider consistent constitution construct construction contain contemporary content context continent continue contrary control convention conversation conversion convert cook cooking copy core correct could council country course court cover covered create creation credit crime critical criticism crop cross crust cultural culture current currently daily damage dark data date day dead death debt decadence decadent decide declaration decline deconstruction deep define definition deity demonstrate denomination department depth describe description design detail determinism developed development device devil diagnosis dialect dictionary die difference different difficult difficulty diphthong dipstick direct directly dirt disagree disambiguation disbelief discipline discover discovery discussion disease disorder distance distinct distinction distinguish distribution divide divine do doctor doctrine document dog don't door down Dr. dream drink drown druid due during dynasty each earlier early earth easier easily easy eat economic economics economy ed edge edit edition editor education effect eight either electric electricity electronic element elevation else emperor empire encyclopedia end energy engine engineering enlightenment enough enter entertainment environment environmental epic episode equal era error especially establish etc. etymology even event eventually ever every everyday everyone everything evidence evil evolution evolve exact exactly example except exchange exist existence expansion experience experiment expert explain explanation express expression external extinct face fact failure fair faith fall false family famous far fast father feature feel feeling female feudal few fiction field fight figure file find finding fire first fish fit five fix flow folk follow food for force foreign foreskin form formal former fortune fought foundation founded four fourth frame framework free freedom frequently friend from front fruit full function functional further future gas general generally generation genre geographer geographic geographical geography geology geometry germ get give glass global go god gold golden good government grammar great greatly green ground group grow growth guide guillotine hair half hall hand handbook handicap handle happen happens happiness happy hard have he head heading health hear heat heaven help hemisphere her here heritage hero high highly him himself his historian historical historiography history hold holy home homo hope hot hour house how however human hundred hunter hypothesis hysteresis I ice icon idea identify identity if illiteracy illiterate illusory image importance important impossible improve in inc. incense include increase indeed independence independent indigenous individual industrial industry influence information inquiry inside instead institute institution instrument instrumentation intellectual intelligence interlinear internal international internet interpretation into introduce introduction invent invention involve iron island issue it IT itself job join journal journalism judge just keep key kill kind king kingdom know knowledge la LA label lack lake lamp land landlocked landscape language large last late later law lead leader leap learn learned least leave legacy legal legend let letter level lexeme library life light lightning like likely limited line linguistic linguistics link liquid list literacy literary literature little liturgy live local location logic logical long longer look lord lore lose lot love low lower mac machine magazine magic magnetic magnum mail main mainly major make male mammal man mankind manuscript many map march March mark market mass material mathematical mathematics matter may May me mean meaning meant measure measurement meat median medical medicine medieval mediterranean medium meet member memory men mental mention mercury message metal method mid middle might migrate migration military millennium million mind minister minute misconception miss model modern modernism modernist moment money monologue monophthong month monument moon moral morality more morning most mostly mother mount mountain mouth move movement much museum music musical musicians must my myth mythology name narrative nation national nationality native natural naturalism naturally nature near nearly necessarily necessary need negative neither neologism network neurogenesis neuron neuroscience never new news newspaper next night nine no non none nor normal normally not note nothing noun novel now nuclear number object objective objectivity observation observe occupation occur ocean octane of off offer office official officially often oil old older on once one online only open opera opposite or oral orbit order org organization organize origin original originally orthography orthology other others our out outer outside over own oxygen p. pack pagan page paint palace paper paradigm parent parish park part participant particular particularly party pas pass past pasta pattern pay peace peer penguin penis people per percent percentage perception performance perhaps period peroxide persecution person personal personality perspective persuasion pet phenomenon philosopher philosophical philosophy phoneme phonetic phonetics photo phrase physic physical picture piece pilgrimage place plan planet plant plat plate play please poem poems poet poetry point pole police policy political politics polytheism polytheistic popular population position positive possession possible possibly post power powerful pp. practical practice praise pray prayer precise predict prediction prehistory present preserve press prevent priest primary principle print printing private probably problem process produce product production professional program project pronounce pronunciation proof property prophet propose prose proselytism protection protein provide province psychological psychology public publication publish publisher publishing punishment pure purpose put pyramid quantum question quickly quite quote race racial rack radiation radio rain range rate rather read reader real realism reality really reason receive recent recently reclamation recognize record recreation red ref refer reference referred reform reformation regard region reign rejection relate relation relationship relatively relativity reliable relic religion religious remain remember remove renaissance replace report republic request require research researcher resource respect response result resurrection retrieve return revelation revert review revision revival revolution rhetoric rich right rise ritual river rock role room royal rule ruled ruler run rural sacred sacrifice safe saga sage saint salad same sample satellite saw say schizophrenia scholar school science scientific scientist scope sea search second secondary section secular see seek seem selection self sense sent sentence separate sequence series service set seven several sexual shall shaman shape share she short should show shrine side sign significant silence similar simple simply since single situation six size skill skin slavery sleep slightly slow small smell smith snake so social society sociology soft soil solar soldier solid soliloquy some someone something sometimes song soon sortable sound source space speak speaker special specie specific speech speed spell spirit spiritual spirituality split sport spread square st. stage stain standard star start state statement station statistic statistical statue status stick still stone stop story strange strap strong structure struggle stub student study stutter style subject successful such sugar suggest sun sung sunlight superior superiority supernatural support suppose supreme sure surface survey surveyor sushi sustainability sustainable sweat symbol symbolic system table take talk tam tan task teach teacher teaching technique technology tectonics teeth tell temperature template temple ten term terminology territory tertiary test testament text textual than thank that the their theism them themselves then theology theoretical theory therapy there therefore thesaurus these they thick thing think third this those though thought thousand three through throughout thumb thus ticket tight time title to today together toilet tolerance toleration tongue too tool top topic total towards tower trade tradition traditional train translation transport travel treat treatment tree trench trial tribe tried trig true truth try turn twentieth twenty two type typical typically ultimate ultraviolet under understand understood union unit united universal universe university unknown unsortable until up upon upper urban urbanization usage use useful usually valley value van vandalism various vassal vegetable verb verbal verse version very video view violence virgin visit vitamin vocabulary voice vol. volume vowel vs. wale wall want war warm warmer wash waste water wave way we weak wealth wear weather web website weight well what when where whether which while white who whole whom whose why wide widely wild wilderness will window wisdom wise witch witchcraft with within without witness woman word work worker world worship would write writer writing wrong yam year yellow you young your

China, March and May made this list because china, march and may are on it and I didn't want to decide in favor of the common noun or the proper noun; all other proper nouns have been omitted (even the ten other months that met the criterium of appearing more then 6 times). #SimpleWikipedia #SimpleEnglish #wordlist #English #words #level1540 #Inli #nimi #selo1540

[dorcasrempel]

Translating proteins into music, and back

Want to create a brand new type of protein that might have useful properties? No problem. Just hum a few bars.

In a surprising marriage of science and art, researchers at MIT have developed a system for converting the molecular structures of proteins, the basic building blocks of all living beings, into audible sound that resembles musical passages. Then, reversing the process, they can introduce some variations into the music and convert it back into new proteins never before seen in nature.

Although it’s not quite as simple as humming a new protein into existence, the new system comes close. It provides a systematic way of translating a protein’s sequence of amino acids into a musical sequence, using the physical properties of the molecules to determine the sounds. Although the sounds are transposed in order to bring them within the audible range for humans, the tones and their relationships are based on the actual vibrational frequencies of each amino acid molecule itself, computed using theories from quantum chemistry.

The system was developed by Markus Buehler, the McAfee Professor of Engineering and head of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at MIT, along with postdoc Chi Hua Yu and two others. As described today in the journal ACS Nano, the system translates the 20 types of amino acids, the building blocks that join together in chains to form all proteins, into a 20-tone scale. Any protein’s long sequence of amino acids then becomes a sequence of notes.

While such a scale sounds unfamiliar to people accustomed to Western musical traditions, listeners can readily recognize the relationships and differences after familiarizing themselves with the sounds. Buehler says that after listening to the resulting melodies, he is now able to distinguish certain amino acid sequences that correspond to proteins with specific structural functions. “That’s a beta sheet,” he might say, or “that’s an alpha helix.”

Learning the language of proteins

The whole concept, Buehler explains, is to get a better handle on understanding proteins and their vast array of variations. Proteins make up the structural material of skin, bone, and muscle, but are also enzymes, signaling chemicals, molecular switches, and a host of other functional materials that make up the machinery of all living things. But their structures, including the way they fold themselves into the shapes that often determine their functions, are exceedingly complicated. “They have their own language, and we don’t know how it works,” he says. “We don’t know what makes a silk protein a silk protein or what patterns reflect the functions found in an enzyme. We don’t know the code.”

By translating that language into a different form that humans are particularly well-attuned to, and that allows different aspects of the information to be encoded in different dimensions — pitch, volume, and duration — Buehler and his team hope to glean new insights into the relationships and differences between different families of proteins and their variations, and use this as a way of exploring the many possible tweaks and modifications of their structure and function. As with music, the structure of proteins is hierarchical, with different levels of structure at different scales of length or time.

The new method translates an amino acid sequence of proteins into this sequence of percussive and rhythmic sounds. Courtesy of Markus Buehler.

The team then used an artificial intelligence system to study the catalog of melodies produced by a wide variety of different proteins. They had the AI system introduce slight changes in the musical sequence or create completely new sequences, and then translated the sounds back into proteins that correspond to the modified or newly designed versions. With this process they were able to create variations of existing proteins — for example of one found in spider silk, one of nature’s strongest materials — thus making new proteins unlike any produced by evolution.

The percussive, rhythmic, and musical sounds heard here are generated entirely from amino acid sequences. Courtesy of Markus Buehler.

Although the researchers themselves may not know the underlying rules, “the AI has learned the language of how proteins are designed,” and it can encode it to create variations of existing versions, or completely new protein designs, Buehler says. Given that there are “trillions and trillions” of potential combinations, he says, when it comes to creating new proteins “you wouldn’t be able to do it from scratch, but that’s what the AI can do.”

“Composing” new proteins

By using such a system, he says training the AI system with a set of data for a particular class of proteins might take a few days, but it can then produce a design for a new variant within microseconds. “No other method comes close,” he says. “The shortcoming is the model doesn’t tell us what’s really going on inside. We just know it works.”

This way of encoding structure into music does reflect a deeper reality. “When you look at a molecule in a textbook, it’s static,” Buehler says. “But it’s not static at all. It’s moving and vibrating. Every bit of matter is a set of vibrations. And we can use this concept as a way of describing matter.”

The method does not yet allow for any kind of directed modifications — any changes in properties such as mechanical strength, elasticity, or chemical reactivity will be essentially random. “You still need to do the experiment,” he says. When a new protein variant is produced, “there’s no way to predict what it will do.”

The team also created musical compositions developed from the sounds of amino acids, which define this new 20-tone musical scale. The art pieces they constructed consist entirely of the sounds generated from amino acids. “There are no synthetic or natural instruments used, showing how this new source of sounds can be utilized as a creative platform,” Buehler says. Musical motifs derived from both naturally existing proteins and AI-generated proteins are used throughout the examples, and all the sounds, including some that resemble bass or snare drums, are also generated from the sounds of amino acids.

The researchers have created a free Android smartphone app, called Amino Acid Synthesizer, to play the sounds of amino acids and record protein sequences as musical compositions.

“Markus Buehler has been gifted with a most creative soul, and his explorations into the inner workings of biomolecules are advancing our understanding of the mechanical response of biological materials in a most significant manner,” says Marc Meyers, a professor of materials science at the University of California at San Diego, who was not involved in this work.

Meyers adds, “The focusing of this imagination to music is a novel and intriguing direction. This is experimental music at its best. The rhythms of life, including the pulsations of our heart, were the initial sources of repetitive sounds that engendered the marvelous world of music. Markus has descended into the nanospace to extract the rythms of the amino acids, the building blocks of life.”

The team also included research scientist Zhao Qin and Francisco Martin-Martinez at MIT. The work was supported by the U.S. Office of Naval Research and the National Institutes of Health.

Translating proteins into music, and back syndicated from https://osmowaterfilters.blogspot.com/

[dorcasrempel]

Interns at the forefront of new technology

MIT Materials Research Laboratory (MRL) interns covered a wide gamut of challenges this summer, working with materials as soft as silk to as hard as iron and at temperatures from as low as that of liquid helium (-452.47 degrees Fahrenheit) to as high as that of melted copper (1,984 F). 

Summer Scholars and other interns participated on the MIT campus through the MRL’s Materials Research Science and Engineering Center, with support from the National Science Foundation, the AIM Photonics Academy, the MRL Collegium, and the Guided Academic Industry Network (GAIN) program. 

Mid-infrared detectors

Simon Egner, from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, made samples of lead tin telluride to detect mid-infrared light at wavelengths from 4 to 7 microns for integrated photonic applications. Egner measured several materials properties of the samples, including the concentration and mobility of electrons. “One thing we have come up with recently is adding lead oxide to try to decrease the amount of noise we get when sensing light with our detectors,” Egner says.

Lead tin telluride is an alloy of lead telluride and tin telluride, explains Peter Su, a materials science and engineering graduate student in the lab of MIT Materials Research Laboratory Principal Research Scientist Anuradha Agarwal. “If you have a lot of carriers already present in your material, you get a lot of extra noise, a lot of background signal, above which it’s really hard to detect the new carriers generated by the light striking your material,” Su says. “We’re trying to lower that noise level by lowering the carrier concentration and we’re trying to do that by adding lead oxide to that alloy.”

Thin films for photonics

Summer Scholar Alvin Chang, from Oregon State University, created chalcogenide thin films with non-linear properties for photonics applications. He worked with postdoc Samuel Serna in the lab of associate professor of materials science and engineering Juejun Hu. Chang varied the thickness of two different compositions, one of germanium, antimony and sulfur (GSS) and the other of germanium, antimony, and selenium (GSSE), creating a gradient, or ratio, between the two across the length of the film.

“The GSS and GSSE both have different advantages and disadvantages,” Chang explains. “We’re hoping that by merging the two together in a film we can sort of optimize both their advantages and disadvantages so that they would be complementary with each other.”

These materials, known as chalcogenide glasses, can be used for infrared sensing and imaging. Anyone interested in learning more about Chang’s work can watch this video.

Nanocomposite assembly

Both Roxbury Community College chemistry and biotechnology Professor Kimberly Stieglitz and Roxbury Community College student Credoritch Joseph worked in the lab of assistant professor in materials science and engineering Robert J. Macfarlane. The Macfarlane Lab grafts DNA to nanoparticles, which enable precise control over self-assembly of molecular structures. The lab is also creating a new class of chemical building blocks that it alls Nanocomposite Tectons, or NCTs, which present new opportunities for self-assembly of composite materials.

Joseph learned the multi-step process of creating self-assembled DNA-nanoparticle aggregates, and used the ones he preparted to study the stability of the aggregates when exposed to different chemicals. Stieglitz created NCTs consisting of clusters of gold nanoparticles with attached polymers and examined their melting behavior in polymer solutions. “They’re actually nanoparticles that are linked together through hydrogen bonding networks,” Stieglitz explains.

Strengthening aerospace composites

Abigail Nason, from the University of Florida, studied the potential benefits of incorporating carbon nanotubes into carbon fiber reinforced plastic [CFRP] via a process termed “nanostitching” in the lab of Brian L. Wardle, professor of aeronautics and astronautics.

Bundles of carbon microfibers, which are known as tows, are used to make sheets of aerospace-grade carbon fiber reinforced plastic. Working with graduate student Reed Kopp, Nason took 3-D scans of composite laminate samples to reveal their structure. Areas between sheets of the laminate are called the interlaminar region. Traditional composites have no reinforcement in this interlaminar region, and carbon nanotubes provide nano-scale fiber reinforcement in the nano-stitch version.

Kopp notes that despite the high level of resolution required to elucidate an intricate architecture of micro-scale features, the 3-D scans can’t distinguish the carbon nanotubes from the epoxy resin because they have similar density and elemental composition. “Since they absorb X-rays similarly, we can’t actually detect X-ray interaction differences that would indicate the locations of reinforcing carbon nanotube forests, but we can visualize how they affect the shape of the interlaminar region, such as how they may push fibers apart and change the shape of inherent resin-rich regions caused during carbon fiber reinforced plastic layer manufacturing.”

Nason adds: “It’s really interesting to see that there isn’t a lot of information out there about how composites fail and why they fail the way they do. But it’s really cool and interesting to be at the forefront of seeing this new technology and being able to look so closely at the composite layers and quantifying critical micro-scale material features that influence failure.” 

Synthesizing electronic materials

Summer Scholar Michael Molinski, from the University of Rhode Island, and Roxbury Community College student Bruce Quinn worked in the lab of assistant professor of materials science and engineering Rafael Jaramillo. Working with graduate students Stephen Filippone and Kevin Ye, both Molinski and Quinn made solid materials, producing powders of compounds such as barium zirconium sulfide, which are desireable for their optical and electrical properties. 

The process involves mixing together the chemical ingredients to produce the powders in a quartz tupe in the absense of air and sealing it. The first GAIN program participant, Quinn hot pressed the powders into pellets. Molinski also grew crystals, and both examined their powders with X-ray diffraction.

Developing multiple sclerosis models

Summer Scholar Fernando Nieves Muñoz, from the University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez, worked in the lab of Krystyn Van Vliet, the Michael (1949) and Sonja Koerner Professor of Materials Science and Engineering, to develop mechanical models of multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions. Nieves Muñoz worked closely with research scientist Anna Jagielska and chemical engineering graduate student Daniela Espinosa-Hoyos.

“We are trying to find a way to stimulate repair of myelin in MS patients so that neurological function can be restored. To better understand how remyelination works, we are developing polymer-based materials to engineer models of MS lesions that mimic mechanical stiffness of real lesions in the brain,” Jagielska explains. 

Nieves Muñoz used stereolithography 3-D printing to create cross-linked polymers with varying degrees of mechanical stiffness and conducted atomic force microscopy studies to determine the stiffness of his samples. “Our long-term goal is to use these models of lesions and brain tissue to develop drugs that can stimulate myelin repair,” Nieves Muñoz says. “As a mechanical engineering major, it has been exciting to work and learn from people with diverse backgrounds.”

Other MIT Materials Research Laboratory interns tackled projects including superconducting thin films, quantum dots for solar, spinning particles with magnetism, carbon-activated silk fibers, water-based iron flow batteries, and polymer-based neuro fibers. 

A version of this post, including additional MRL summer intern success stories, originally appeared on the Materials Research Laboratory website.

Interns at the forefront of new technology syndicated from https://osmowaterfilters.blogspot.com/

[dorcasrempel]

Interns at the forefront of new technology

MIT Materials Research Laboratory (MRL) interns covered a wide gamut of challenges this summer, working with materials as soft as silk to as hard as iron and at temperatures from as low as that of liquid helium (-452.47 degrees Fahrenheit) to as high as that of melted copper (1,984 F). 

Summer Scholars and other interns participated on the MIT campus through the MRL’s Materials Research Science and Engineering Center, with support from the National Science Foundation, the AIM Photonics Academy, the MRL Collegium, and the Guided Academic Industry Network (GAIN) program. 

Mid-infrared detectors

Simon Egner, from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, made samples of lead tin telluride to detect mid-infrared light at wavelengths from 4 to 7 microns for integrated photonic applications. Egner measured several materials properties of the samples, including the concentration and mobility of electrons. “One thing we have come up with recently is adding lead oxide to try to decrease the amount of noise we get when sensing light with our detectors,” Egner says.

Lead tin telluride is an alloy of lead telluride and tin telluride, explains Peter Su, a materials science and engineering graduate student in the lab of MIT Materials Research Laboratory Principal Research Scientist Anuradha Agarwal. “If you have a lot of carriers already present in your material, you get a lot of extra noise, a lot of background signal, above which it’s really hard to detect the new carriers generated by the light striking your material,” Su says. “We’re trying to lower that noise level by lowering the carrier concentration and we’re trying to do that by adding lead oxide to that alloy.”

Thin films for photonics

Summer Scholar Alvin Chang, from Oregon State University, created chalcogenide thin films with non-linear properties for photonics applications. He worked with postdoc Samuel Serna in the lab of associate professor of materials science and engineering Juejun Hu. Chang varied the thickness of two different compositions, one of germanium, antimony and sulfur (GSS) and the other of germanium, antimony, and selenium (GSSE), creating a gradient, or ratio, between the two across the length of the film.

“The GSS and GSSE both have different advantages and disadvantages,” Chang explains. “We’re hoping that by merging the two together in a film we can sort of optimize both their advantages and disadvantages so that they would be complementary with each other.”

These materials, known as chalcogenide glasses, can be used for infrared sensing and imaging. Anyone interested in learning more about Chang’s work can watch this video.

Nanocomposite assembly

Both Roxbury Community College chemistry and biotechnology Professor Kimberly Stieglitz and Roxbury Community College student Credoritch Joseph worked in the lab of assistant professor in materials science and engineering Robert J. Macfarlane. The Macfarlane Lab grafts DNA to nanoparticles, which enable precise control over self-assembly of molecular structures. The lab is also creating a new class of chemical building blocks that it alls Nanocomposite Tectons, or NCTs, which present new opportunities for self-assembly of composite materials.

Joseph learned the multi-step process of creating self-assembled DNA-nanoparticle aggregates, and used the ones he preparted to study the stability of the aggregates when exposed to different chemicals. Stieglitz created NCTs consisting of clusters of gold nanoparticles with attached polymers and examined their melting behavior in polymer solutions. “They’re actually nanoparticles that are linked together through hydrogen bonding networks,” Stieglitz explains.

Strengthening aerospace composites

Abigail Nason, from the University of Florida, studied the potential benefits of incorporating carbon nanotubes into carbon fiber reinforced plastic [CFRP] via a process termed “nanostitching” in the lab of Brian L. Wardle, professor of aeronautics and astronautics.

Bundles of carbon microfibers, which are known as tows, are used to make sheets of aerospace-grade carbon fiber reinforced plastic. Working with graduate student Reed Kopp, Nason took 3-D scans of composite laminate samples to reveal their structure. Areas between sheets of the laminate are called the interlaminar region. Traditional composites have no reinforcement in this interlaminar region, and carbon nanotubes provide nano-scale fiber reinforcement in the nano-stitch version.

Kopp notes that despite the high level of resolution required to elucidate an intricate architecture of micro-scale features, the 3-D scans can’t distinguish the carbon nanotubes from the epoxy resin because they have similar density and elemental composition. “Since they absorb X-rays similarly, we can’t actually detect X-ray interaction differences that would indicate the locations of reinforcing carbon nanotube forests, but we can visualize how they affect the shape of the interlaminar region, such as how they may push fibers apart and change the shape of inherent resin-rich regions caused during carbon fiber reinforced plastic layer manufacturing.”

Nason adds: “It’s really interesting to see that there isn’t a lot of information out there about how composites fail and why they fail the way they do. But it’s really cool and interesting to be at the forefront of seeing this new technology and being able to look so closely at the composite layers and quantifying critical micro-scale material features that influence failure.” 

Synthesizing electronic materials

Summer Scholar Michael Molinski, from the University of Rhode Island, and Roxbury Community College student Bruce Quinn worked in the lab of assistant professor of materials science and engineering Rafael Jaramillo. Working with graduate students Stephen Filippone and Kevin Ye, both Molinski and Quinn made solid materials, producing powders of compounds such as barium zirconium sulfide, which are desireable for their optical and electrical properties. 

The process involves mixing together the chemical ingredients to produce the powders in a quartz tupe in the absense of air and sealing it. The first GAIN program participant, Quinn hot pressed the powders into pellets. Molinski also grew crystals, and both examined their powders with X-ray diffraction.

Developing multiple sclerosis models

Summer Scholar Fernando Nieves Muñoz, from the University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez, worked in the lab of Krystyn Van Vliet, the Michael (1949) and Sonja Koerner Professor of Materials Science and Engineering, to develop mechanical models of multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions. Nieves Muñoz worked closely with research scientist Anna Jagielska and chemical engineering graduate student Daniela Espinosa-Hoyos.

“We are trying to find a way to stimulate repair of myelin in MS patients so that neurological function can be restored. To better understand how remyelination works, we are developing polymer-based materials to engineer models of MS lesions that mimic mechanical stiffness of real lesions in the brain,” Jagielska explains. 

Nieves Muñoz used stereolithography 3-D printing to create cross-linked polymers with varying degrees of mechanical stiffness and conducted atomic force microscopy studies to determine the stiffness of his samples. “Our long-term goal is to use these models of lesions and brain tissue to develop drugs that can stimulate myelin repair,” Nieves Muñoz says. “As a mechanical engineering major, it has been exciting to work and learn from people with diverse backgrounds.”

Other MIT Materials Research Laboratory interns tackled projects including superconducting thin films, quantum dots for solar, spinning particles with magnetism, carbon-activated silk fibers, water-based iron flow batteries, and polymer-based neuro fibers. 

A version of this post, including additional MRL summer intern success stories, originally appeared on the Materials Research Laboratory website.

Interns at the forefront of new technology syndicated from https://osmowaterfilters.blogspot.com/

[dorcasrempel]

Interns at the forefront of new technology

MIT Materials Research Laboratory (MRL) interns covered a wide gamut of challenges this summer, working with materials as soft as silk to as hard as iron and at temperatures from as low as that of liquid helium (-452.47 degrees Fahrenheit) to as high as that of melted copper (1,984 F). 

Summer Scholars and other interns participated on the MIT campus through the MRL’s Materials Research Science and Engineering Center, with support from the National Science Foundation, the AIM Photonics Academy, the MRL Collegium, and the Guided Academic Industry Network (GAIN) program. 

Mid-infrared detectors

Simon Egner, from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, made samples of lead tin telluride to detect mid-infrared light at wavelengths from 4 to 7 microns for integrated photonic applications. Egner measured several materials properties of the samples, including the concentration and mobility of electrons. “One thing we have come up with recently is adding lead oxide to try to decrease the amount of noise we get when sensing light with our detectors,” Egner says.

Lead tin telluride is an alloy of lead telluride and tin telluride, explains Peter Su, a materials science and engineering graduate student in the lab of MIT Materials Research Laboratory Principal Research Scientist Anuradha Agarwal. “If you have a lot of carriers already present in your material, you get a lot of extra noise, a lot of background signal, above which it’s really hard to detect the new carriers generated by the light striking your material,” Su says. “We’re trying to lower that noise level by lowering the carrier concentration and we’re trying to do that by adding lead oxide to that alloy.”

Thin films for photonics

Summer Scholar Alvin Chang, from Oregon State University, created chalcogenide thin films with non-linear properties for photonics applications. He worked with postdoc Samuel Serna in the lab of associate professor of materials science and engineering Juejun Hu. Chang varied the thickness of two different compositions, one of germanium, antimony and sulfur (GSS) and the other of germanium, antimony, and selenium (GSSE), creating a gradient, or ratio, between the two across the length of the film.

“The GSS and GSSE both have different advantages and disadvantages,” Chang explains. “We’re hoping that by merging the two together in a film we can sort of optimize both their advantages and disadvantages so that they would be complementary with each other.”

These materials, known as chalcogenide glasses, can be used for infrared sensing and imaging. Anyone interested in learning more about Chang’s work can watch this video.

Nanocomposite assembly

Both Roxbury Community College chemistry and biotechnology Professor Kimberly Stieglitz and Roxbury Community College student Credoritch Joseph worked in the lab of assistant professor in materials science and engineering Robert J. Macfarlane. The Macfarlane Lab grafts DNA to nanoparticles, which enable precise control over self-assembly of molecular structures. The lab is also creating a new class of chemical building blocks that it alls Nanocomposite Tectons, or NCTs, which present new opportunities for self-assembly of composite materials.

Joseph learned the multi-step process of creating self-assembled DNA-nanoparticle aggregates, and used the ones he preparted to study the stability of the aggregates when exposed to different chemicals. Stieglitz created NCTs consisting of clusters of gold nanoparticles with attached polymers and examined their melting behavior in polymer solutions. “They’re actually nanoparticles that are linked together through hydrogen bonding networks,” Stieglitz explains.

Strengthening aerospace composites

Abigail Nason, from the University of Florida, studied the potential benefits of incorporating carbon nanotubes into carbon fiber reinforced plastic [CFRP] via a process termed “nanostitching” in the lab of Brian L. Wardle, professor of aeronautics and astronautics.

Bundles of carbon microfibers, which are known as tows, are used to make sheets of aerospace-grade carbon fiber reinforced plastic. Working with graduate student Reed Kopp, Nason took 3-D scans of composite laminate samples to reveal their structure. Areas between sheets of the laminate are called the interlaminar region. Traditional composites have no reinforcement in this interlaminar region, and carbon nanotubes provide nano-scale fiber reinforcement in the nano-stitch version.

Kopp notes that despite the high level of resolution required to elucidate an intricate architecture of micro-scale features, the 3-D scans can’t distinguish the carbon nanotubes from the epoxy resin because they have similar density and elemental composition. “Since they absorb X-rays similarly, we can’t actually detect X-ray interaction differences that would indicate the locations of reinforcing carbon nanotube forests, but we can visualize how they affect the shape of the interlaminar region, such as how they may push fibers apart and change the shape of inherent resin-rich regions caused during carbon fiber reinforced plastic layer manufacturing.”

Nason adds: “It’s really interesting to see that there isn’t a lot of information out there about how composites fail and why they fail the way they do. But it’s really cool and interesting to be at the forefront of seeing this new technology and being able to look so closely at the composite layers and quantifying critical micro-scale material features that influence failure.” 

Synthesizing electronic materials

Summer Scholar Michael Molinski, from the University of Rhode Island, and Roxbury Community College student Bruce Quinn worked in the lab of assistant professor of materials science and engineering Rafael Jaramillo. Working with graduate students Stephen Filippone and Kevin Ye, both Molinski and Quinn made solid materials, producing powders of compounds such as barium zirconium sulfide, which are desireable for their optical and electrical properties. 

The process involves mixing together the chemical ingredients to produce the powders in a quartz tupe in the absense of air and sealing it. The first GAIN program participant, Quinn hot pressed the powders into pellets. Molinski also grew crystals, and both examined their powders with X-ray diffraction.

Developing multiple sclerosis models

Summer Scholar Fernando Nieves Muñoz, from the University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez, worked in the lab of Krystyn Van Vliet, the Michael (1949) and Sonja Koerner Professor of Materials Science and Engineering, to develop mechanical models of multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions. Nieves Muñoz worked closely with research scientist Anna Jagielska and chemical engineering graduate student Daniela Espinosa-Hoyos.

“We are trying to find a way to stimulate repair of myelin in MS patients so that neurological function can be restored. To better understand how remyelination works, we are developing polymer-based materials to engineer models of MS lesions that mimic mechanical stiffness of real lesions in the brain,” Jagielska explains. 

Nieves Muñoz used stereolithography 3-D printing to create cross-linked polymers with varying degrees of mechanical stiffness and conducted atomic force microscopy studies to determine the stiffness of his samples. “Our long-term goal is to use these models of lesions and brain tissue to develop drugs that can stimulate myelin repair,” Nieves Muñoz says. “As a mechanical engineering major, it has been exciting to work and learn from people with diverse backgrounds.”

Other MIT Materials Research Laboratory interns tackled projects including superconducting thin films, quantum dots for solar, spinning particles with magnetism, carbon-activated silk fibers, water-based iron flow batteries, and polymer-based neuro fibers. 

A version of this post, including additional MRL summer intern success stories, originally appeared on the Materials Research Laboratory website.

Interns at the forefront of new technology syndicated from https://osmowaterfilters.blogspot.com/