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annieboltonworld · 3 years

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Juniper Publishers-Open Access Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources

Distribution of Arsenic Species in Surface Water Using Flow Injection Hydride Generation Atomic Absorption Spectrometry and Furnace Method

Authored by Swapnila Roy

Abstract

Arsenic has been considered detrimental to human health when accumulated in the body beyond the tolerance level. The toxicity level of certain species (like As3+) of Arsenic is higher than others, making the situation worse for human health with its presence. In this study, we used a combination of two principal atomic absorption spectroscopic methods, namely Flame-FIAS and the Furnace technique, to determine the distribution of inorganic Arsenic species in a synthetic sample. The Flame-FIAS technique was employed to determine the amount of toxic As3+ present in the samples and the Furnace method was used to measure the total Arsenic content. Following standardization of this experimental process, we used the technique to determine the distribution of inorganic Arsenic species in environmental samples with high total Arsenic content. Since the samples were collected from surface water systems, the conditions are supposed to be oxidizing. As per the natural geochemical distribution phenomena of Arsenic species, As5+ was found predominantly (around the range of 10-18 μg/l) in all samples, validating the process of species identification. In groundwater samples, conditions being reducing, the As3+ species is supposed to be predominant. These findings can guide future bioremediation strategies to be effectively designed, as per the distribution of Arsenic species in the surface water.

Keywords: As3+; As5+; FIAS; Furnace; Environmental Samples; Arsenic Speciation

Highlights

a) Standardization of Arsenic speciation in synthetic samples using FIAS (Flame Ionisation Atomic Absorption Spectrometry) and Graphite Furnace methods.

b) Application of Arsenic speciation in environmental samples with total arsenic content.

c) Determination of predominant inorganic Arsenic species in surface water system.

Introduction

Arsenic is a ubiquitous metalloid found in lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere [1]. Natural minerals are the key source of arsenic. The soil arsenic concentration ranges from 0.1 to 40 mg/kg around the world, while, in water, it ranges from <0.05 to 5000 μg/l [2,3]. Arsenic and its compounds are highly toxic. Studies have shown that consumption of water with high arsenic content can lead to arsenical skin lesions [4]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the recommended arsenic concentration in potable water is 10 μg/l. Prolonged exposure to arsenic can lead to skin cancer, neurological disorders, lung cancer, liver cancer and adverse obstetric effects [5-9]. Groundwater arsenic contamination has become an issue of great concern across the world. A number of countries have been affected by high arsenic concentration in groundwater, when it is a source of drinking water. Of them, Bangladesh and India (West Bengal) have been affected the worst [4,10,11]. The elevated presence of arsenic in the groundwater of the Bengal Delta Plain (BDP) has been termed as “the worst mass poisoning in human history” [12]. Other affected countries are Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Taiwan, Mongolia, China (Xinjiang region), Chile, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Mexico, Ghana, Germany, Greece, Spain, Canada and the United States [13]. In West Bengal, six districts are adversely affected by arsenic contamination in groundwater: North 24 Parganas, South 24 Parganas, Nadia, Burdwan, Murshidabad and Malda. The total affected area is around 34,000 km2 with a population of about 30 million (44.4% of the total population of West Bengal). About 800,000 people in this region drink arsenic contaminated water and about 175,000 people are suffering from arsenic related diseases [10]. Other Indian states such as Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Assam are also affected by the issue. Out of 64 districts in Bangladesh, 51 have been detected with arsenic contamination. The total area of these 51 districts is 121,145 km2 and population of about 113 million (87% of the total population of Bangladesh) [5]. Excessive use of hand tube wells for drinking water and other purposes has caused the major outbreak of arsenic contamination in these regions. The biogeochemical cycle of arsenic involves a number of physicochemical processes, such as redox reactions, adsorption, desorption, ion exchange, solid phase precipitation and dissolution. Microbiological processes play a crucial role in these processes [14]. Several factors like redox potential, pH, organic carbon and chemical speciation play important roles in these processes [14,15]. Arsenic occurs in four oxidation states: elemental arsenic (As0), arsenite (As3+), arsenate (As5+) and arsenide (As3-). Among these species, As3+ and As5+ are the most common ones found in aquatic environment [16]. Distribution and mobility of these arsenic species depend upon local physicochemical conditions as well as biological processes. The pKa values of arsenic acid (H3AsO4; contains arsenic in the form of As5+) are – pKa1 = 2.19, pKa2 = 6.94 and pKa3 = 11.5. Therefore, at low pH (i.e., below 6.9) and oxidizing condition, H2AsO4 - is the predominant form, whereas, at higher pH levels, HAsO4 2- is the predominant form. Arsenate, being negatively charged, gets adsorbed easily on the oxidized minerals [17]. The lowest pKa value for As3+ is 9.22. In most natural water with pH below 9.2 as well as reducing condition, As(OH)3 is the predominant form. Solubility of arsenic depends upon its speciation [18]. Elemental arsenic is not very common in the environment, and organic forms of arsenic are found only in extremely reducing conditions (within live biomass) [19].

Objectives of This Study

This study aims to identify the method of selective determination of As3+and the total Arsenic in a solution where Arsenic exists in both trivalent and pentavalent state, by combining two methods:

a) Hydride generation through Flame – FIAS technique. (PinAAcle 900H Atomic Absorption Spectrometer, Perkin Elmer)

b) Furnace method (PinAAcle 900H Atomic Absorption Spectrometer, Perkin Elmer)

Application of the method in determination of As species in environmental samples (river water samples).

Subtracting the result of trivalent arsenic from total Arsenic, pentavalent Arsenic concentration of the solution can be measured. Presence of other forms of Arsenic is assumed to be negligible.

Methodology and Methodology

Basic Reagent Preparation

a) As3+ standard 50 μg/l : From stock 1000mg/l NIST As3+ soln. 0.1 ml was added to 100 ml volumetric flask and volume made up to 100 ml with milli Q water resulting 1000 μg/L of As3+ solution. From it 5 ml was added to 100 ml volumetric flask yield to 50 μg/l of As3+ soln. by volume make up with milli Q water.

b) As5+ standard 50μg/l : From stock 1000mg/l NIST As5+ soln. 0.1 ml was added to 100 ml volumetric flask and volume made up to 100 ml with milli Q water resulting 1000 μg/L of As5+ solution. From it 5 ml was added to 100 ml volumetric flask yield to 50 μg/l of As3+ soln. by volume make up with milli Q water.

c) Calibration standard: from 1000 μg/L of As3+ solution 4,10,20,30,40 μg/L of calibration standards were prepared.

d) Tris - Buffer (2.5 M, pH 6.2) : 75.69 gm Tris Base was dissolved in 130 ml of milli Q water. Then Conc. HCl was added continuously by checking the pH in pH meter and final pH was maintained at 6.2. Then volume was made up to 250 ml with milli Q water in a 250 ml volumetric flask.

Specific Reagent for Flame-FIAS Method

Sodium Borohydride (Reductant): 6 gm of Sodium Borohydride was dissolved in 1000 ml vol. flask with 0.6 gm of NaOH with milli Q water

Carrier Acid (3% HCl): 30 ml Conc. HCl is dissolved in 1000 ml milli Q water in 1 L volumetric flask.

Specific Reagent For Furnace Method

Chemical modifier :1%(10g/L) Pd stock solution & 1%(10g/L) Mg stock solution were prepared. 3ml of Pd stock & 0.3 ml of Mg stock solution is added to 10 ml of MQ water.

Collection of Samples:

Sampling Sites: The sampling sites were selected based on the As contamination results obtained from routine monitoring procedure undertaken by the West Bengal Pollution Control Board. Typically, two surface water streams in the lower Gangetic delta exhibited high Arsenic contamination, namely Churni and Jalangi. Three sampling points were identified in River Churni and one point from River Jalangi. Both rivers are trans-boundary and are tributaries of the River Ganges. Sampling points on River Churni are located at Majdia (23° 23’ 60’’ N, 88° 42’ 0’’ E), Shantipur- Ranaghat (23° 10’ 12’’ N, 88° 32’ 60’’ E) and Mathabhanga Govindapur (23° 23’ 56.4’’ N, 89° 43’ 15.6’’ E) of the Nadia district. Sampling points on River Jalangi (23° 49’ 12’’ N, 88° 28’ 19.2’’ E) are located at Krishnanagar of Nadia District.

Sampling Procedure: The water samples were collected from the sampling points in sterile containers and were transported to laboratory on ice for further analysis. The samples were immediately transported to the laboratory in ice cold condition in heat insulated container. The samples were refrigerated at 4⁰C, if not processed immediately.

Experimental Procedure

1st Experiment

Two sets of mixed solutions were prepared according to the Table 1 – named as Set A (A1-A8) & Table 2 for Set B (B1-B8). 1 ml Tris buffer was added to each solution of Set A. The following experimental solutions are prepared from 50 μg/l of both As3+and As5+stock solutions.

2nd Experiment

For checking interference, two sets of mixed solutions were prepared according to the Table 3 – named as Set C (C1-C7) & Set D (D1-D7). 1 ml Tris buffer was added to each solution of Set C. The concentrations of Set A, B, C & D solutions were measured by Flame FIAS method against the calibration curve.

3rd Experiment

Two set of samples were prepared according to Table 4 & named as Set E (1-8) & F (1-8).Undigested synthetic samples were used in Set E. And in Set F, synthetic samples were digested with Conc. HNO3 by Microwave Digestion System (Anton PAAR). (Digestion Method: 15 ml sample + 0.75 ml conc. HNO3. Run Program- USER 004M) Then Set E & F, are analyzed by furnace method.

4th Experiment Applied on Environmental Samples

Eight environmental samples were taken for Arsenic speciation study. 50 ml aliquot of each sample was taken in 50 ml test tube. The pH of each sample was checked to neutral. Then samples were analyzed by Flame FIAS method to get As3+ concentration.

The same 8 environmental samples were subject to digestion. 15 ml of sample was digested in MDS with 0.75 ml conc. HNO3. Then samples were analyzed by Furnace method to get total Arsenic concentration. Subtracting As3+concentration from total Arsenic concentration, As5+ concentrations were obtained.

Results and Discussion

Several mixtures (As3+ + As5+) were analyzed both in the presence and absence of buffer. Reported values of As3+in both set A2 & B2 are 4.632μg/l & 4.804μg/l, respectively. However, the mixture (As3+/As5+ in sets A1 & B1) actually contains 0 μg/l As3+ & 30 μg/l As5+. Hence, it may be assumed that a positive interference (artifact) may be due to reduction of any As5+present or any impurities.

Whether the reported value of As3+in sets A2 and B2 (at actual value of 0 μg/l of As3+ in mixed solution As3+/As5+) depends on As5+ concentration or not, can be ascertained by analyzing different solutions with varying concentrations of As5+ against As3+ calibration curve in Flame-FIAS method. Blank concentrations in the presence and absence of buffer, i.e for A1 & B1 are reported as 0.006 μg/l & 0.096μg/l respectively

It can be presumed that a value due interference (obtained in case of seta A1 and B1) coming from As5+NIST Standard in mixed solutions of As3+/As5+are appeared. To check the interference, the solutions of As5+ of different concentrations are may be measured against As3+ standard curve by Flame FIAS method.

From the above experimental data (Table 5) it was observed that the interference value due to As5+ was not increasing proportionately & also reported below our lowest calibration standard value. Hence, the quantification of interference value due to As5+ is not possible at pH 6-7.

Chemistry Behind This Phenomenon

In the hydride generation method through Flame-FIAS, the total As (As3+ and As5+) was reduced to As3+ (followed by simultaneous conversion to arsine, AsH3 gas) using a reducing agent (Sodium borohydride). If the pH was maintained at near neutral range (6- 7), the reduction (As5+ to As3+) did not occur, and only the portion of the As present in trivalent form was selectively converted to AsH3. Using TRIS buffer, the pH of the solution was maintained at 6.2, where As5+ was expected not to get reduced to As3+, and only the fraction of As present in trivalent form gets converted to AsH3, As3+ (and not total As) was selectively determined by Flame – FIAS method. In this study, several mixtures (As3+ + As5+) are analysed both in the presence and absence of buffer to understand the effect of pH on the reduction of As5+ to As3+.

Chemical Reaction behind this conversion may be:

It was observed (as indicated in Figure 1) that on increasing the concentration of As3+ in the mixtures, the same was reflected in the spectrometric data, for both the sets (A & B), i.e. As3+ fraction in the solution gets converted to AsH3. It was also observed (as indicated in Figure 2) increasing pH (in the experimental range from pH 5 to pH 7) the interference of As 5+ decreased in arsenic solution in Flame FIAS method. From the Table 6, concentration of total Arsenic (given 30 μg/l) was varying from 23.25 to 24.6 μg/l in the undigested samples (set E) even at pH=2, due to unknown chemical interferences. But in case of digested samples at same pH (Set F) the concentration of Total As was around 30μg/l. In case of environmental samples the presence of total Arsenic went above the range of WHO standards (=10μg/l) but the more toxic species of Arsenic (i.e., As3+) varied from 1.66 to 3.94 μg/l following natural chemical phenomenon (Tables 7 & 8).

Therefore, we can apply this method for speciation of Arsenic in this kind of environmental samples.

Conclusion

We conclude that the FLAME-FIAS method can be used to determine As3+ in the mixed solution of As3+/As5+ at neutral pH as Arsenic speciation technique by plotting As3+ NIST standard calibration curve. An interfering value, due to transformation of As5+ to As3+ to some extent, is reflecting in the above experiment which cannot be nullified in this experimental condition. Additionally, in the case of the Furnace method, undigested synthetic samples have a certain amount of interference in comparison to the digested ones. Through application of this speciation study in environmental samples following standardized protocol, the concentration of As3+ is found to be low. Therefore, future remediation processes in this region should be planned according to the distribution of inorganic species reported here.

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bbcbreakingnews · 3 years

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India generated around 33,000 tonnes Covid-19 waste in 7 months; Maharashtra biggest contributor

NEW DELHI: India generated around 33,000 tonnes of Covid-19 biomedical waste in the last seven months, with Maharashtra contributing the maximum (3,587 tonnes) to it, according to Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) data. Over 5,500 tonnes of Covid-19 waste was generated across the country in October — the maximum for a month so far. According to the data received from state pollution control boards, since June 2020, all states and union territories have generated 32,994 tonnes of Covid-19-related biomedical waste which is being collected, treated and disposed of by 198 common biomedical waste treatment facilities (CBWTFs). Covid-19 biomedical waste could include PPE kits, masks, shoe covers, gloves, human tissues, items contaminated with blood, body fluids like dressings, plaster casts, cotton swabs, beddings contaminated with blood or body fluid, blood bags, needles, syringes etc. According to the data, Maharashtra generated 5,367 tonnes of Covid-19 waste in seven months since June, followed by Kerala (3,300 tonnes), Gujarat (3,086 tonnes), Tamil Nadu (2,806 tonnes), Uttar Pradesh (2,502 tonnes), Delhi (2,471 tonnes), West Bengal (2,095 tonnes) and Karnataka (2,026 tonnes). Around 4,530 tonnes of such waste was generated in December, with Maharashtra contributing the maximum 629 tonnes, followed by Kerala (542 tonnes) and Gujarat (479 tonnes). Delhi generated 321 tonnes of Covid-19 bio-medical waste in December, according to the CPCB data. Around 4,864 tonnes of Covid-19 waste was generated in November, of which 609 tonnes was contributed by Maharashtra, 600 tonnes by Kerala, 423 tonnes by Gujarat and 385 tonnes by Delhi. In October, the country generated 5,597 tonnes of Covid-19 waste, the maximum in the last seven months, with Kerala (641), Gujarat (545) and Maharashtra (542) being the top three contributors. In September, 5,490 tonnes of such waste was generated. Gujarat contributed the maximum 622 tonnes, followed by Tamil Nadu (543 tonnes), Maharashtra (524 tonnes), Uttar Pradesh (507 tonnes) and Kerala (494 tonnes), as per the data. The CPCB had in March last year issued specific guidelines for handling, treatment and disposal of such waste at healthcare facilities, quarantine centres, homes, sample collection centers, laboratories, pollution control boards, urban local bodies and common biomedical waste treatment facilities (CBWTFs). The apex pollution body had in May developed the ‘Covid19BWM’ mobile application to monitor coronavirus-related biomedical waste and to compile the data through electronic manifest system. This application tracks Covid-19 waste at the time of generation, collection and disposal. In July last year, the Supreme Court made it mandatory for all urban local bodies and state pollution control boards to use the mobile application for tracking biomedical waste daily in a bid to ensure that the waste is collected, transported and sent to the registered CBWTFs. As on Sunday, India’s Covid-19 caseload stands at 1,04,50,284 while the death toll is 1,50,999.

source https://bbcbreakingnews.com/2021/01/10/india-generated-around-33000-tonnes-covid-19-waste-in-7-months-maharashtra-biggest-contributor/

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swedna · 4 years

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While Indians rejoiced over clear, pollution-free skies during the nationwide lockdown to contain Covid-19, which is still partially in force, they paid little heed to a silent killer that may have grown more dangerous during this time: household or indoor air pollution (HAP).

The lockdown from March 25, 2020, which saw more meals being cooked at home than usual, may have led to an almost 2%--or about 150 tons per day--increase in total household PM 2.5 emissions in India, according to the preliminary findings of a yet-to-be published study by the World Resources Institute (WRI) India, the Indian chapter of a global think-tank researching environmental and developmental issues.

Moreover, with an estimated 50% of the population that is usually away during peak cooking hours being confined indoors, the number of people affected by HAP is likely to have increased significantly, the study found.

Particles of PM 2.5--fine inhalable particulate matter that can enter the blood-stream--are emitted when solid biomass fuels such as wood, charcoal and dung are burnt for cooking or heating. About 78% of India’s 1.3 billion population uses these solid fuels for their primary and secondary needs, according to WRI India’s calculations.

"Indoor air pollution, while not as much in the public eye as ambient air, is a silent killer, especially among the urban poor and the rural population, who use solid biomass fuels,” said Ajay Nagpure, head of WRI-India’s air pollution division, who is leading this research.

About half a million Indians die prematurely every year due to diseases caused by HAP exposure, including heart disease, strokes, respiratory diseases and lung cancer. Young children, women and the elderly are the worst affected. The main policy step taken by the government to address the cost to human health of HAP has been to incentivise households to use clean liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) for cooking, in place of polluting biomass fuels, but the impact has so far been limited, we reported, and experts have asked for more sustained and targeted efforts to achieve this.

The average daily concentration of PM 2.5 inside a home using solid cooking fuel can be anywhere in the range of 163-600 micrograms per cubic metre (µg/m3), according to this study. This is between six and 23 times the safe level of daily air pollution exposure of 25 µg/m3 recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO).

Outdoor vs indoor pollution

On March 25, India shut down all transport, most industries and commercial activities with the start of its lockdown. In the weeks that followed, the country--home to 14 of the world’s top 20 most polluted cities--saw outdoor air pollution plummeting exponentially, IndiaSpend reported on June 24, 2020. For example, the Central Pollution Control Board found that outdoor air pollution in Delhi had halved over 20 days, from March 25 to April 15.

On the other hand, WRI India’s research showed that the indoor air pollution story was very different. In order to estimate household pollution levels during the lockdown, WRI India researchers collated three kinds of data: the projected state-wise population figures for India for 2020, state-wise cooking fuel usage by households, for both primary and secondary purposes, and the number of meals consumed in a day by urban and rural homes, along with details of consumption patterns, including where meals were eaten and who provided them. These figures were obtained from surveys conducted by Census of India and National Sample Survey Office.

The researchers estimated that during the first two months of the nationwide lockdown, when people mostly stayed inside their homes, 3% of the meals that the urban and rural Indian population eats outside their households had shifted indoors where, as we said, 78% of India’s 1.3 billion population used polluting fuels as their primary or secondary fuel for cooking.

The meals cooked at home during this period included those normally purchased from restaurants, those supplied by employers and those provided by the government or charitable organisations (for example, mid-day meals for school-children).

Based on this calculation, WRI India researchers estimated that urban households recorded a 3% daily increase in PM 2.5 emissions and rural households recorded an increase of almost 2%. However, the rise in rural India (121 tons per day) is more than five times that of urban India (22 tons per day), because of the larger number of rural households.

The national daily average household emission for PM 2.5 increased from nearly 8,600 tons to about 8,750 tons per day during the lockdown, according to the WRI India analysis.

WRI India’s estimates for daily household PM 2.5 emissions were more accurate than previous studies, Nagpure said, because they had taken into account PM 2.5 emissions for both primary and secondary usage of solid fuels, instead of accounting only for primary usage. Primary usage refers to solid fuels being the primary source of cooking in a household and secondary usage refers to solid fuels being used alongside clean fuels such as LPG.

Kerala and Maharashtra the biggest indoor emitters

Nagpure also suggested that the household emission levels of PM 2.5 might be even higher during the lockdown than WRI India’s research had shown, since several LPG users may have stopped using costly LPG after having lost their jobs or sources of income.

“Social distancing under COVID-19 may have reduced travel-related emissions, but it has very likely also disrupted the supply of LPG, thereby increasing the emissions within households,” said Hem Dholakia, an independent policy researcher.

Although India has partially relaxed its lockdown, this will not necessarily lead to a significant fall in indoor pollution levels, according to Nagpure. “During the partial relaxation of the lockdown, the increase in daily emissions that we have recorded may go down,” he told IndiaSpend. “But it is not just a matter of people leaving their homes; the avenues for meals outside the home, including community kitchens and restaurants, also need to be open,” said Nagpure.

Kerala, with an increase of 20 tons a day in PM 2.5 emissions, Maharashtra (15 tons/day), West Bengal (14 tons/day) and Jharkhand (12 tons/day) are emerging as the biggest indoor emitters among states in this study, which will explore the variations between states in generating household emissions. Nagpure told IndiaSpend that the level of emissions in a particular state depends on the factors such as the overall population of the state or union territory (UT), the proportion of people eating outside the home, and the share of the population using biomass for cooking.

In Kerala, which is the top emitter according to this study, 50% of the rural households use clean cooking fuels such as LPG, but they do not use it exclusively, and also make use of hazardous fuels in the kitchen, IndiaSpend reported in April 2018.

Other major contributors to household air pollution include such as Andaman and Nicobar Island, Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, and Daman and Diu, the study has found.

Deadly exposure

With about 50% of India’s population--that is, people who normally leave their homes to work or go to school, during peak cooking hours in households--staying indoors during the lockdown, the number of people exposed to increased levels of HAP had also greatly increased, the study found.

Of particular concern is the increased exposure to household PM 2.5 emissions of those more prone to develop respiratory illnesses due to such exposure, such as children and the elderly, and of worsening exposure to women, who already bear the brunt of HAP since they do most of the cooking.

Newborn and under-five children are the most vulnerable, with their underdeveloped lungs. Indoor air pollution caused 66,800 deaths of under-five children in India in 2016, 10% more than 60,900 deaths of under-five children caused by outdoor air pollution in the same year, according to a study by the WHO, IndiaSpend reported in October 2018.

Results from a study of men and women over 60 showed a higher prevalence of asthma in households using biomass fuels than those using cleaner fuels.

Along with posing a health risk through direct exposure, HAP is also one of the largest contributors of outdoor or ambient air pollution in India. “About 30% of ambient air quality exposure on average is linked to household sources--the single largest contributor nationally,” Santosh Harish, fellow at the Center for Policy Research (CPR), a Delhi-based think-tank, told IndiaSpend.

In 2015, one in four deaths from particulate pollution in India was due to household biomass burning, IndiaSpend reported in January 2018. The same month, we also reported that even brief exposure to particulate pollution at lower than standard levels can be deadly.

Boosting LPG use

The central government launched its flagship cooking energy programme, Ujjwala, in 2016 to alleviate the public health burden of HAP by providing a subsidy and loan for the upfront cost of acquiring an LPG connection. Since the launch, over 80 million connections have been issued so far, IndiaSpend reported on May 11, 2020.

Still, having a free connection is not enough. Steep recurring expenses for LPG, the easy and often cost-free availability of solid fuels and the poor availability of LPG in rural areas continue to limit the extent to which households use LPG for cooking needs, we reported.

As part of the relief response to Covid-19 under the banner of the Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Package, over 80 million Ujjwala beneficiaries were awarded three free LPG refill cylinders for three months from April 1, 2020, that is, 80 million cylinders were to be distributed every 30 days. However, only 68 million cylinders were distributed over 50 days to May 20, 2020, the government data showed. Assuming one free cylinder went to a single family, about 12 million families had not received their first free cylinder almost two months into the lockdown that started on March 25, 2020.

The way forward

The provision of free LPG cylinders as part of COVID-19 relief measures is a welcome step, and should ideally be continued as part of a social protection package, Harish said, to bring down HAP levels. (Read IndiaSpend’s report on this solution published on May 11, 2020.)

However, Harish stressed that the LPG subsidy regime should be overhauled, making it better targeted towards those who really need it and towards reaching greater numbers of such people. Subsidising urban middle class consumers through this scheme was a poor allocation of resources, he said.

Targeted policies to further improve the affordability of LPG refills for poor households, promoting its use at the community-level, reducing the distance travelled to procure LPG and ensuring predictable and regular cash flow to the poor would facilitate sustained use of clean cooking fuels, our May 11, 2020 report said.

(Tripathi is an IndiaSpend reporting fellow.) Click here for original article

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deltaponline · 4 years

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Effective pumping to sustainably clean the holy River Ganges of tannery wastewater and effluents

As part of the National Clean Ganga Mission, Andritz supplied 15 pumps for conveying tannery wastewater and effluent to effluent treatment plants in Kanpur, India, to clean the River Ganges in preparation for the 2019 Kumbh Mela festival. Usually, more than 120 million Hindu devotees participate in Kumbh Mela, making it one of the largest religious gatherings in the world. It is a central pilgrimage and festival of Hinduism, celebrated at four different Indian riverbank sites – the confluence of the Ganga, Yamuna and the mythical Saraswati rivers, and on the banks of the Ganga, the Godavari and the Shipra rivers – in a 12-year cycle. The main highlight of this event is the ritual dipping into or bathing in the water combined with a prayer. This is believed to liberate the devotee from the cycle of rebirths or result in atonement and penance for mistakes and sins committed. The motivations for bathing might be different, but the water quality of the rivers, especially the Ganges at Kanpur, India, is life-threatening due to discharge of untreated sewage, effluents, drainage, etc. into the Ganga River. River pollution on the rise In India, the majority of the rivers are absolutely filthy. According to a 2019 study issued by the Central Pollution Control Board, a statutory organization under the Indian Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, the number of polluted stretches in the rivers has increased from 301 to 351 in the past two years. The number of critically polluted ones has even risen from 34 to 45. Among them is also the largest river on the Indian subcontinent, the Ganga. It is considered the sixth-most polluted river in the world. Long-term cleaning attempts The disastrous water quality of the Ganga is, however, not a new issue. In the 1980s, the Ganga Action Plan was launched to clean the river. Sewage treatment plants were built in the three most populous provinces along the river, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. In a similar project, other sewage treatment plants were added along the river in the 1990s. Over the years, the population along the Ganges has rapidly increased, resulting in more sewage. In Kanpur, India, lots of tanneries producing tannery wastewater and effluents, which contain fibrous material such as fats, skin, hair, sewage, and the like, discharge this waste into the Ganges due to pumping issues with the old pumps they still have installed. Finally, a number of new governmental initiatives and programs were introduced to sustainably tackle this pollution issue over the past ten years. In 2009, the National Ganges River Basin Authority was founded to take a more holistic approach to cleaning the basin and maintaining free flow in the river. This authority was later disbanded and succeeded by the National Mission for Clean Ganges (NMCG) in October 2016. The aim is to clean the Ganges and its tributaries thoroughly and effectively. In 2014, the Namami Gange (meaning Salutations to Ganga) program was launched to clean the river. Additionally, the Ministry of Water Resources was renamed to the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development, and Ganges Rejuvenation to further underline the seriousness of intentions to improve the water quality there. Clean Ganga Mission for Kumbh Mela

In the Clean Ganga Mission for Kumbh Mela, the scope of supply consisted of four Andritz self-priming pumps from the AD series and eleven Andritz single-stage centrifugal pumps from the ACP series. In addition to these long-term programs, the Government Department of India for Uttar Pradesh strengthened the Clean Ganga Mission for Kumbh Mela well ahead of the religious event, which took place from January 15 to March 4, 2019. A major stimulus behind this initiative was a report by the Uttar Pradesh Pollution Control Board stating that the River Ganges at Prayagraj is unsafe for bathing both upstream and downstream. The report showed that the water contains extremely high levels of coliform bacteria, mostly fecal coliform. Large numbers of such coliform bacteria can lead to water-borne diseases such as diarrhea. To quickly improve this situation and ensure safe Ganges water for the devotees visiting Kumbh Mela 2019 at Prayagraj, the National Mission to Clean Ganga made additional funds available and the State Mission for Clean Ganga of Uttar Pradesh took various measures to treat the wastewater discharged into the river. These included release of extra water upstream at the Tehri dam in Uttarakhand on the one hand and the temporary closure of heavily polluting tanneries in Kanpur, a city located upstream of Prayagraj. On the other hand, the main target of this mission was to replace old pumps in the effluent pumping stations along the river in Kanpur. These pumps are not able to effectively handle today’s waste and thus, they break down regularly. To tackle this issue and prevent untreated wastewater from flowing into the Ganges, existing effluent pumping stations were renovated with new pumps. The award specifications for supply of the pumps to the effluent treatment plants were quite strict: a tight delivery time of three months and the capability to handle fibrous liquids with a density of up to 1300 kg/m3. Thanks to its ability to ensure fast delivery and commissioning within the given period as well as fulfilling the pumps’ technical requirements, Andritz was awarded the contract to manufacture and supply 15 new pumps, including 4 self-priming pumps to seven pumping stations in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh. The infrastructure expert

The Andritz single-stage centrifugal pump from the ACP series is particularly versatile thanks to its highly wear-resistant, open impeller design, low axial thrust, and open channels. Depending on the impeller design, the pumps can convey slightly contaminated as well as heavily contaminated media containing some solids. Thus, these pumps are suitable for conveying many different media, allowing them to be installed as process pumps in a wide range of industrial applications from pulp and paper to water supply and wastewater treatment. Founded in 1854 in Graz, Austria, the international technology group Andritz looks back on a long tradition as a global manufacturer of machinery and industrial plants. Its Pumps division is one of the oldest within the company. The many years of experience in building hydraulic machines and the entire process know-how form the basis for the high standard of Andritz pumps technology today. However, with its approximately 29,700 employees operating from more than 280 locations in over 40 countries, Andritz is not a newcomer to India. The company currently runs eight offices on the Indian subcontinent, including a manufacturing assembly dedicated to pumps in Chennai. At the workshop, high-quality single- and double-suction centrifugal pumps are manufactured, assembled and tested according to European standards. Additionally, the international technology group is currently supporting the Indian infrastructure mega-project Jala Yagnam in a total of eleven sub-projects. These include 27 customized vertical volute pumps for three pumping stations belonging to the largest sub-project, Kaleshwaram, which is designed to store about 4.7 trillion liters of water in order to irrigate 740,000 hectares. In the Clean Ganga Mission for Kumbh Mela, the scope of supply consisted of four Andritz self-priming pumps from the AD series and eleven Andritz single-stage centrifugal pumps from the ACP series. The latter pump type is particularly versatile thanks to its highly wear-resistant, open impeller design, low axial thrust, and open channels. Depending on the impeller design, the pumps can convey slightly contaminated as well as heavily contaminated media containing some solids and with consistencies of up to 8 percent. Thus, these pumps are suitable for conveying many different media, allowing them to be installed as process pumps in a wide range of industrial applications from pulp and paper to water supply and wastewater treatment. A modular system ensures high availability, enables the use of proven components and reduces the number of spare parts to be held in stock. To round off the pumps order, Andritz self-priming pumps from the AD series achieve high priming and degassing performance thanks to their integrated vacuum pump. With its open impeller, the pump is designed for and insensitive to transporting high solids-containing media or even viscous media. The open impeller also provides better efficiencies with viscous media compared to closed impellers. The integrated vacuum pump prevents air from collecting at the impeller inlet and guarantees that the pump primes well, even with high gas content or unfavorable suction pipe arrangements. Thanks to these design features, the self-priming centrifugal pumps are perfectly suited for applications and processes in wastewater treatment. Completed within a record time of three months from award of the order to the pumps’ erection and commissioning, the hydraulic machines were installed at the most critical application in the process. They pump the tannery wastewater up to the effluent treatment plant. To perform this task reliably, the pumps are capable of handling fibrous liquids with a density of up to 1300 kg/m3. Since their start-up, all the pumps have been working successfully without any problems and to the customer’s full satisfaction. On the right path Most of the 150 million pilgrims attending the event reported that the water was much cleaner due to these special temporary and long-term efforts. However, making and keeping a river clean is a continuous process. The Clean Ganga Mission initiative for Kumbh Mela was another important step in the right direction as its mixture of both temporary and permanent measures, such as renewing the pumps in the sewage and effluent treatment plants, contributed to noticeably cleaner water in the downstream Ganges region, covering a 135-kilometer route from Allahabad. Company profile: Andritz is an international technology group providing plants, systems, equipment, and services for various industries. The company is one of the technology and global market leaders in the hydropower business, the pulp and paper industry, the metal working and steel industries, and in solid/liquid separation in the municipal and industrial segments. Other important fields of business are animal feed and biomass pelleting, as well as automation, where Andritz offers a wide range of innovative products and services in the IIoT (Industrial Internet of Things) sector under the brand name of Metris. In addition, the company is active in power generation (steam boiler plants, biomass power plants, recovery boilers, and gasification plants) and environmental technology (flue gas and exhaust gas cleaning plants) and offers equipment for the production of nonwovens, dissolving pulp, and panelboard, as well as recycling plants. Andritz stands for passion, partnership, perspectives and versatility – core values to which the company is committed. The listed Group is headquartered in Graz, Austria. With almost 170 years of experience, approximately 29,600 employees, and more than 280 locations in over 40 countries worldwide, Andritz is a reliable and competent partner and helps its customers to achieve their corporate and sustainability goals. Contact by mail www.andritz.com/pumps Read the full article

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pragnyaiasacademy-blog · 4 years

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Gujarat was the most water-efficient state in India, according to an HT report on rankings of the survey. The survey was based on various parameters on efficiency targets and the study included the review of central as well as the state government water departments by the Union Ministry of Jal Shakti, the HT report stated. In the rankings, Rajasthan emerged as the third most water-efficient state. Meanwhile, the national capital stood amongst the worst states in this regard.

In the rankings, seven Centre departments were reviewed, of which the Survey of India stood first. While the National Institute of Hydrology (NIH) came second, the Central Water Commission was ranked third. On the contrary, the Central Pollution Control Board stood last among them.

In the ranking of 2018, Telangana had emerged as the winner, while Gujarat had been placed 7th. Moreover, Delhi has improved its ranking this time, with its position rising six places from 41 in 2018 to 35 this time. Apart from this, Tamil Nadu was one of the biggest improvers, going from 33rd position in 2018 to 13th in 2019.

The parameters for rankings include finance, data digitisation, training, procurement, analytical work, real-time data acquisition system, and updating of MIS, and the departments have been marked out of 100. Among this, the satisfactory category includes those departments scoring between 48 and 100. Scores between 40 and 48 have been categorised as moderately satisfactory, 34 and 40 as moderately unsatisfactory, while the remaining have been termed as unsatisfactory. According to this grading system, 9 agencies have been categorised as satisfactory, 8 as moderately satisfactory, 4 as moderately unsatisfactory and 12 as unsatisfactory.

Kerala, Gujarat’s Surface Water (SW) Department, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal SW, Himachal Pradesh, and Telangana have been placed in the satisfactory category. Gujarat SW Department scored 80.51 to emerge as the winner, followed by Damodar Valley Corporation at 68.24 and Rajasthan with 66.73. All of the remaining agencies in the satisfactory category scored below 50.

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dr-bellam-ravichandra-blog · 4 years

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Best Crusher Machinery By Buildmate

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bigyack-com · 4 years

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Double whammy for north India as cold, fog intensify - india news

Intense cold and dense fogs disrupted normal life in northern India on Monday, delaying several flights and trains as visibility was reduced to less than 25 meters. The weather department has predicted similar conditions for the next two days.The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has attributed the fog and severe cold to cloud cover which has led to creation of a poor ventilation zone from Amritsar in the west to Gaya in the east, covering entire Delhi and parts of central and eastern Uttar Pradesh.A cold wave was declared in parts of Odisha and West Bengal as a result of a cold plume that brought cold winds from north-westerly direction to eastern India. Sonepur in Odisha recorded minimum temperature of 5.4 degree Celsius, the lowest ever for the small town, even as Malkangiri, on the border of Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, recorded the maximum temperature of 30 degree Celsius.

Officials said the impact of the cold north India was felt in parts of central India with minimum temperatures dipping by three to four degree Celsius in several places, including Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh and Nagpur in Maharashra.The IMD said the ventilation condition is likely to improve by Monday evening but the fog will return due to a dip in temperature at night and low wind speed, which will also contribute to a spike in air pollution levels in the region.The Central Pollution Control Board’s Air Quality Index (AQI) chart for cities also showed that most of the towns in the poor ventilation zone had severe levels of air pollution. For instance, Delhi’s AQI was 446, Noida’s 464, Kanpur’s 424 and Gaya 335.Around 40 flights were cancelled and 20 others were diverted due to dense fog in Delhi. According to an official statement from the Delhi airport, the fog affected operations of about 500 flights with landing delayed up to five hours between 6 am and noon. Private airlines, IndiGo and Vistara, on Monday issued a travel advisory saying flights to and from the national capital have been impacted due to bad weather and poor visibility.The Northern Railways in a statement said that about 30 trains were delayed with more than a seven hour delay in Bhubaneshwar-New Delhi Rajdhani Express and five hour for Puri-New Delhi Purushottam Express. Many of the trains coming from the northern region were running late and some were even cancelled due to fog. The cold wave conditions intensified in Uttar Pradesh. Churk in Mirzapur district was the coldest which recorded 1.7 degree Celsius on Monday, the lowest in the last 50 years. According to a met official, Muzaffarnagar at 3.3, Fatehpur at 3.6, Banda and Orai at 4 degrees Celsius were other coldest districts in the state. Lucknow was relatively better as the minimum temperature in the city was 6.7 degree Celsius in the early hours of Monday.At 1 degree Celsius, Rajasthan’s capital Jaipur recorded its lowest temperature of the last 55 years. Before this, the lowest temperature in the city was recorded at zero degrees on December 13, 1964.Besides Jaipur, large parts of Rajasthan are reeling under severe cold wave and fog conditions. Sikar was the coldest place in the state, recording a temperature of minus 0.5 degrees Celsius, which was 5.1 degrees below the normal.Met office (western region) director Shiv Ganesh said the Western disturbance had created a cyclonic circulation over north-east and south-east Rajasthan, which had led to cold wave conditions. “The cold wave will continue for another 48 hours and will abate a bit after that,” said Ganesh.“Beginning December 31, there will be three to four days of winter rain. A fresh western disturbance is very likely to affect western Himalayan region from December 30 night onwards,” said a press release issued by the Lucknow Meteorological Centre.For the hill states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, the IMD on Monday predicted fresh snow and rain on January 2 and 3.Bikram Singh, director of Meteorological Centre in Dehradun said, “On January 2 and 3, snowfall and rainfall activity will occur across the north-western Himachal belt, but the intensity will be high in Kumaon region compared to Garhwal. In areas at a height of 2500m-3000m, one feet of snowfall is expected, in areas at 2200-2500m two to three inches of snowfall is likely to occur.”Despite the winter chills, there was huge influx of tourists for New Year celebrations to hill stations in the two states. Traffic jams were reported on Shimla-Kalka highway, and in Mussourie and Nainital.(With inputs from bureaus in Dehradun, Jaipur, Chandigarh and Lucknow) Read the full article

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