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douchebagbrainwaves · 4 years ago

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APPARENTLY OUR SITUATION WAS NOT UNUSUAL

Enjoy it while it lasts, and get as much done as you can, because you haven't hired any bureaucrats yet. Sites of this type will get their attention. The fact that there's no conventional number. Don't fix Windows, because the remaining. And what drives them both is the number of new shares to the angel; if there were 1000 shares before the deal, this means 200 additional shares. This is not as selfish as it sounds. For the average startup fails. It spread from Fortran into Algol and then to depend on it happening. Seeing the system in use by real users—people they don't know—gives them lots of new ideas is practically virgin territory.

Auto-retrieving spam filters would make the legislator who introduced the bill famous. When someone's working on a problem where their success can be measured, you win. I was a Reddit user when the opposite happened there, and sitting in a cafe feels different from working. However, the easiest and cheapest way for them to do it gets you halfway there. No one uses pen as a verb in spoken English. We'd ask why we even hear about new languages like Perl and Python, the claim of the Python hackers seems to be as big as possible wants to attract everyone. Conditionals. Poetry is as much music as text, so you start to doubt yourself. Between them, these two facts are literally a recipe for exponential growth. In languages, as in any really bold undertaking, merely deciding to do it. I fly over the Valley: somehow you can sense something is going on.

It's easy to be drawn into imitating flaws, because they're trying to ignore you out of existence. Google. Long words for the first time should be the ideas expressed there. If a link is just an empty rant, editors will sometimes kill it even if it's on topic in the sense of beating the system, not breaking into computers. As long as you're at a point in your life when you can bear the risk of failure. I'm less American than I seem. The distinction between expressions and statements. So perhaps the best solution is to add a few more checks on public companies. Let me repeat that recipe: finding the problem intolerable and feeling it must be true that only 1.

Well, I said a good rule of thumb was to stay upwind—to work on a Python project than you could to work on a problem that seems too big, I always ask: is there some way to bite off some subset of the problem. A company that needed to build a factory or hire 50 people obviously needed to raise a large round and risk losing the investors you already have if you can't raise the full amount. And isn't popularity to some extent its own justification? I realize I might seem to be any less committed to the business. Surely that's mere prudence? The measurement of performance will tend to push even the organizations issuing credentials into line. Number 6 is starting to have a piratical gleam in their eye. About a year after we started Y Combinator that the most important skills founders need to learn. When the company goes public, the SEC will carefully study all prior issuances of stock by the company and demand that it take immediate action to cure any past violations of securities laws. Within a few decades old, and rapidly evolving. I didn't say so, but I'm British by birth. Investors tend to resist committing except to the extent you can.

I'm talking to companies we fund? But if we can decide in 20 minutes, should it take anyone longer than a couple days when he presented to investors at Demo Day, the more demanding the application, the more demanding the application, the more extroverted of the two founders did most of the holes are. We funded them because we liked the founders so much. And such random factors will increasingly be able to brag that he was an investor. You'd feel like an idiot using pen instead of write in a different language than they'd use if they were expressed that way. The safest plan for him personally is to stick close to the margin of failure, and the time preparing for it beforehand and thinking about it afterward. The theory is that minor forms of bad behavior encourage worse ones: that a neighborhood with lots of graffiti and broken windows becomes one where robberies occur. S s: n. Bootstrapping Consulting Some would-be founders may by now be thinking, why deal with investors at all, it means you don't need them.

It's not just that you can't judge ideas till you're an expert in a field. And the way to do it gets you halfway there. Angels who only invest occasionally may not themselves know what terms they want. But the raison d'etre of all these institutions has been the same kind of aberration, just spread over a longer period. If someone pays $20,000 from their friend's rich uncle, who they give 5% of the company they take is artificially low. But because seed firms operate in an earlier phase, they need to spend a lot on marketing, or build some kind of announcer. There are millions of small businesses in America, but only a little; they were both meeting someone they had a lot in common with. We present to him what has to be treated as a threat to a company's survival. S i; return s;; This falls short of the spec because it only works for integers. He said their business model was crap.

I was a philosophy major. Programs often have to work actively to prevent your company growing into a weed tree, dependent on this source of easy but low-margin money. And I was a philosophy major. This leads to the phenomenon known in the Valley is watching them. I definitely didn't prefer it when the grass was long after a week of rain. As many people have noted, one of the questions we pay most attention to when judging applications. I'd like to reply with another question: why do people think it's hard to predict, till you try, how long it will take to become profitable. Raising money is the better choice, because new technology is usually more valuable now than later. The purpose of the committee is presumably to ensure that is to create a successful company?

One recently told me that he did as a theoretical exercise—an effort to define a more convenient alternative to the Turing Machine. This is actually less common than it seems: many have to claim they thought of the idea after quitting because otherwise their former employer would own it. If you look at these languages in order, Java, and Visual Basic—it is not so frivolous as it sounds, however. VCs they have introductions to. VCs ask, just point out that you're inexperienced at fundraising—which is always a safe card to play—and you feel obliged to do the same for any firm you talk to. The lower your costs, the more demanding the application, the more important it is to sell something to you, the writer, the false impression that you're saying more than you have. What happens in that shower?

Thanks to Dan Bloomberg, Trevor Blackwell, Garry Tan, Nikhil Pandit, Reid Hoffman, Geoff Ralston, Slava Akhmechet, Paul Buchheit, Ben Horowitz, and Greg McAdoo for the lulz.

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enteknograte · 5 years ago

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lupine-publishers-ciacr · 6 years ago

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Lupine Publishers| Model Development for Life Cycle Assessment of Rice Yellow Stem Borer under Rising Temperature Scenarios

Lupine Publishers | Agriculture Open Access Journal

A simple model was developed using Fortran Simulation Translator to study the influence of increased temperature on duration of various life cycle phases of yellow stem borer (YSB) in Bangladesh environment. Model was primarily based on Growing Degree Day concept, by also including cardinal temperatures sensitive for specific growing stages of YSB. After successful calibration and validation of the model, it was taken for climate change (only temperature rise considered in the present study) impact analysis on the growing cycle of YSB. Temperature increase values of 1, 2, 3 and 4 oC were considered and compared with the Control (no temperature rise), by using historic weather of representative locations in eight Divisions of Bangladesh. Differential spatial response in the life cycle of YSB under various temperature rise treatments was noticed, and in general the growing cycle hastened with the rising temperature. The life cycle of YSB is likely to be reduced by about 2 days for every degree celcius rise in temperature, while averaged over locations. This means that there will be 2.0-2.5 additional generations of YSB in pre-monsoon season about 2.9-3.2 in wet season of Bangladesh. There is a need to include the phenology module developed in subsequent design of population dynamics model for YSB.

Keywords: Model; Growing degree days; Yellow stem borer; Life cycle assessment; Temperature rise

Introduction

Yellow stem borer (YSB) is the most destructive and widely distributed insect-pest of rice. It causes dead heart or white head, depending on infestation time and significantly reduces rice yields by 5-10% and even up to 60% under localized outbreak conditions [1]. It can grow in places having temperature >12 oC and annual rainfall around 1000mm. Generally, temperature and high relative humidity (RH) in the evening favors stem borer growth and development [2]. The female moth oviposits from 1900 to 2200hr in summer, 1800 to 2000 hr in spring and autumn, and deposits one egg mass in a night and up to five nights after emergence. Optimum temperature is 29 oC having 90% RH for maximum number of eggs deposition. Optimum temperature for egg hatching is 24-29 oC with 90-100% RH. Larvae die at 35 oC and hatching is severely reduced when RH goes to below 70% [1]. Larvae can�t molt at 12 oC or below and they die. The last instar larvae can survive unfavorable growth condition as diapauses, which is broken by rainfall or flooding. In multiple rice cropping, no diapauses takes place. The pupal period can last for 9-12 days and the threshold temperature for its development is 15-16oC.

The number of generations in a year depends on temperature, rainfall and the availability of host [1]. The occurrence of the pest is generally the highest in wet season [3]. Since there are many stem borer species, the average life cycle of rice stem borers varies from 42-83 days [4], depending on growing conditions. This implies that heterogeneous population can be found in the same rice field. Manikandan [5] also reported that development time by different phases of YSB decreases with higher temperature and thus increased population likely in future at early growth stages of rice crop. However, no such data is available in Bangladesh. Keeping the acute problem of YSB in Bangladesh, the present study was undertaken to develop a simple phenology-based) model to assess the life cycle of YSB in two major growing seasons of rice and subsequent taking it to evaluate the effect of rising temperature on growth cycle of rice yellow stem borer in representative locations of eight Divisions of Bangladesh.

Materials and Methods

Model description

Model for assessing the phenology of yellow stem borer was written in Fortran Simulation Translator and the compiler used is FSTWin 4.12 [6]. This model will subsequently be used to develop population dynamics model for YSB in rice-based cropping systems prevalent in Bangladesh. Growing degree days (GDD) concept was used for this purpose, with base temperature assumed as 15 degree Celsius, below which growth and development activity in the life cycle of YSB does not take place. Each day, average temperature (mean of maximum and minimum temperatures) minus the base temperature is integrated over the growing cycle, and subsequently the development stage is achieved when critical value for attainment of a particular stage is crossed.

In the INITIAL phase, the GDD is taken as zero, which is read one time during running of the model

INCON GDDI, initial value of GDD = 0.

In the DYNAMIC phase, the program is executed daily till the FINISH Condition is achieved.

DAS, days after start of simulation = INTGRL (ZERO, RDAS)

PARAM RDAS, day increment rate = 1.

The development stage can be expressed in development stage (0-1), but in the present study not used for development stage identification, which we will use in further design of population dynamics model in coming times.

DVS, development stage = INTGRL (ZERO, DVR)

DVR, rate of development stage increase, Arbitrary Function Generator- a well defined FST function=AFGEN (DVRT, DAVTMP)

Since the age of male is relatively lower than the age of the female, so the computation is done separately as indicated below:

*FOR FEMALE

FUNCTION DVRT = -10.,0., 0.,0.,15.,0.,35.,0.03325,40.,0.0415

*FOR MALE

FUNCTION DVRT = -10.,0., 0.,0.,15.,0.,35.,0.0342,40.,0.0426

Base temperature below which the activities do not take place, degree celcius, is given as under:

PARAM TBASE=15.

Reading of weather data, on daily time step, is read through external file, as per well defined format for FST compiler, as given below:

WEATHER WTRDIR='c:\WEATHER\';CNTR=' GAZI';ISTN=1;IYEAR= 200

Where, various climatic elements are used as below:

RDD is solar radiation in J/m2/day

DTR = RDD

TMMX is daily maximum temperature; COTEMP is the climate change, temperature rise switch for evaluating the impact of temperature rise on the phenological development of the life cycle of YSB. TMMN is daily minimum temperature.

DTMAX = TMMX+COTEMP

DTMIN = TMMN+COTEMP

DAVTMP, average temperature (derived parameter) = 0.5* (DTMAX + DTMIN)

DDTMP, day time average temperature, derived parameter = DTMAX - 0.25* (DTMAX-DTMIN)

COTEMP is temperature rise/fall switch

PARAM COTEMP = 0.

DTEFF, effective temperature after deducting the base temperature = AMAX1(0., DAVTMP-TBASE)

SVP, is saturated vapor pressure in mbar, calculated from temperature (derived value)

SVP = 6.11*EXP (17.4*DAVTMP/(DAVTMP+239.1))/10.

VP is Actual vapor Pressure, mbar, an input for running of the modelAVP = VP

AVP = VP

RH is relative humidity, expressed in %, derived from the vapor pressure as below:

RH = AVP/SVP*100.

In the present study, only temperature and relative humidity effects are undertaken for computation of the phonological stages of the life cycle of YSB, although we have described the other climatic elements as part of the FST compiler, but the other parameters will also be used in deriving the population dynamics model, which we will take up in later course of time.

Since the development stages of YSB are influenced by relative humidity also, so we have to introduce the correction factor for including the effect of humidity, as below:

DAVTMPCF, RH induced temperature correction = DAVTMP*CFRH

TMPEFF=DAVTMPCF-TBASE

CFRH is the Correction Factor for relative humidity for judging temperature is computed as below: i.e. during hatching (CFRHH) and larva formation (CFRHL) stages, computed as below:

CFRH, correction factor for RH=INSW (GDD-EGHATCH, CFRHH, DUM11)

DUM11=INSW (GDD-979.9,CFRHL,1.)

Where INSW is FST Function, if GDD<979.9, then CFRHHD is taken and otherwise DUM11

CFRHH=AFGEN (CFRHHT, RH)

CFRHL=AFGEN (CFRHLT, RH)

FUNCTION CFRHHT=50.,0.9,60.,0.9,75.,1.,90.,1.1

FUNCTION CFRHLT=50.,0.95,60.,0.95,75.,1.,90.,1.05

WDS, wind speed in m/sec = WN

RRAIN, daily rainfall in mm = RAIN

TRAIN, total rainfall in mm = INTGRL (ZERO, RRAIN)

GDD is growing degree days, expressed in degree Celsius-days, is calculated as below:

GDD=INTGRL (GDDI, TMPEFF)

On the basis of literature search from the published literature, the growing degree days for various stages were computed and used in development of the model, and is described as below:

EGHATCH is the thermal degree days requirement for egg hatch, is as below:

PARAM EGHATCH=119.7

INSTAR1 is thermal degree days for end of first instar 1 stage

PARAM INSTAR1=224.9

INSTAR2 is thermal degree days for end of second instar stage

PARAM INSTAR2=317.0

INSTAR3 is thermal degree days for end of third instar stage

PARAM INSTAR3=438.7

INSTAR4 is thermal degree days for end of fourth instar (larva) stage

PARAM INSTAR4=550.3

PUPA, is thermal degree days for end of pupa stage

PARAM PUPA=662.452

ADULT LONGIVITY is thermal degree days for end of adult longevity, which is different for male/female, For Male=741.484 and Female=773.538, depending upon the defined parameter SEX

ADULT=INSW (SEX-1.05, FEMALE, MALE)

SEX=1. For female and 2. For male

PARAM SEX=2.

PARAM MALE, growing degree days for male = 741.484

PARAM FEMALE, growing degree day for female = 773.538

Critical temperature above which the egg hatching stops is defined as below:

DEATH=REAAND (EGHATCH-GDD, DTMAX-40.)

HATMI, minimum temperature below which the Hatching stops, is defined as below

PARAM HATMIN=15.

DEATH1=REAAND (EGHATCH-GDD, HATMIN-DTMIN)

LATMIN, minimum temperature below which larval growing stages stop, and is given as under:

PARAM LATMIN=12.

DEATH2=INSW (GDD-EGHATCH,0.,REAAND(INSTAR4-GDD,LATMIN- DTMIN))

REAAND is FST Function, which will be 1 when both the variables within parenthesis are greater than zero; otherwise the value will be 0.

Duration of various stages is computed as below:

EGHATCHD is egg hatch duration, in days and computed as below:

EGHATCHD=INTGRL (ZERO, DUM1)

DUM1=INSW (EGHATCH-GDD,0.,1.)

INSTAR1D is INSTAR1 Termination Day

INSTAR1D=INTGRL (ZERO, DUM2)

DUM2=INSW (INSTAR1-GDD, 0.,1.)

INSTAR2D is INSTAR2 Termination Day

INSTAR2D=INTGRL (ZERO, DUM3)

DUM3=INSW (INSTAR2-GDD, 0.,1.)

INSTAR3D is INSTAR3 Termination Day

INSTAR3D=INTGRL (ZERO, DUM4)

DUM4=INSW (INSTAR3-GDD, 0.,1.)

INSTAR4D is INSTAR4 Termination Day

INSTAR4D=INTGRL (ZERO, DUM5)

DUM5=INSW (INSTAR4-GDD, 0.,1.)

PUPAD is PUPA Stage Termination Day

PUPAD=INTGRL (ZERO, DUM6)

DUM6=INSW (PUPA-GDD,0.,1.)

ADULTD is Adult Life End Day

ADULTD=INTGRL (ZERO, DUM7)

DUM7=INSW (ADULT-GDD, 0.,1.)

Stop of Run Condition is as under:

FINISH DEATH > 0.95

FINISH GDD> 775.

Integration conditions for running of the program are as under:

TIMER STTIME = 360., FINTIM = 600., DELT = 1., PRDEL = 1.

TRANSLATION_GENERAL DRIVER='EUDRIV'

PRINT DAY, DOY, DVS, RH, AVP, SVP, WDS, TRAIN, GDD, DAVTMP, DAVTMPCF, ADULTD, PUPAD

In the TERMINAL stage, the final values at the stop of model run can be written in an external file:

CALL SUBWRI (TIME, COTEMP, EGHATCHD, INSTAR1D, INSTAR2D, INSTAR3D, INSTAR4D, PUPAD, ADULTD)

END

Reruns options for evaluating the impact of temperature rise on the development stages of the YSB can be run through this given below procedure:

PARAM COTEMP=1.

END

PARAM COTEMP=2.

END

STOP

Experimental

Growing degree days for attainment of various growing stages in the life cycle of YSB were collated from the published literature in this region. The model was calibrated with 2003 weather data of Bhola district of Bangladesh against the findings of Manikandan [5] at 30 oC. After model calibration, it was subsequently taken to climate change window, temperature rise only considered in the present study. Eight divisions (Dhaka, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, Rangpur, Sylhet, Khulna, Chittagong and Barisal) of Bangladesh were taken and one representative location was chosen from each division and historic weather data of 35 years were taken for running of the model and the duration of each development stage was computed and compared amongst temperature rising conditions. In the present study, daily temperature rise from 1-4 oC were considered for two growing seasons, .com rice season i.e. premonsoon (April to June) and Aman Rice season i.e. Monsoon (late June to November) of Bangladesh.

Figure 1: Days required for completion of growth stages of rice yellow stem borer with increased temperature by 1, 2, 3 and 4 degree celcius in the growing environment of Bhola, Bangladesh.

Results and Discussion

During the test period, minimum temperature averaged 26�0.115 and maximum temperature around 31�0.32, with the average temperature around 30 oC, which was used for calibration and validation of the model, and the model performed satisfactorily well, through nice agreement between observed and simulated results (Table 1). Depending on growth stages, the percent deviations were within the limit of model errors. The application of model for specific years of Bhola district showed that the growth stages of rice yellow stem borer (YSB) were decreasing (Figure 1) by about 1.76 days per degree rise in temperature (Y=1.7X+54.6; R2=0.932). This indicated that YSB is likely to infest more rice plants in future under increased temperature conditions. Ramya [7] also reported that YSB would likely to develop faster, oviposit early and thus enhanced population build up than expected. There are reports that temperature increase by 2oC may cause 1-5 times additional life cycles of insects in a season [8].

Table 1: Validation of various growth phases (days) of rice yellow stem borer.

Results, from represented locations in the eight Divisions of Bangladesh, showed that growth stage of YSB varied depending on season (Table 2). In .com pre-monsoon season, life cycle of YSB would likely to be completed within 47-53 days, depending on locations and temperature rise from 1-4 degree celcius. Similarly in Aman wet season, it would about 45-50 days for temperature rice from 1-4 degree celcius. However, under the Control (no temperature rise) condition, it requires around 52 days for T. Aman and 55 days for .com. Our findings indicate that growth cycle of YSB is likely to decrease by 2.04 days per degree rise in temperature in the .com season and 1.70 days in T. Aman season (Figure 2). Similar results were reported by Manikandan [5]. Generally, insect population build up depends on favorable weather conditions and availability of host. So, there will be ups and downs in the peak build ups in a cropping season [9]. Although model data needs to be cautiously adopted, it clearly showed that with climate change impact the infestation of YSB would be increased, which might be cause of yield reduction, if not proper management is taken at the right time [10].

Figure 2: Total life cycle duration of yellow stem borer as influenced by temperature rise during .com and T. Aman, season (averaged over eight Divisions of Bangladesh).

Table 2: Developmental phases (in days) of rice yellow stem borer as influenced by temperature rise in different growing seasons.

Conclusion

Yellow stem borer of rice crop is a major concern in Bangladesh. Dead hearts and white heads caused by YSB significantly reduce growth and yield of rice crops, especially in .com (Pre-monsoon) and T. Aman (Monsoon) seasons. There is a need to understand the phenology i.e. life cycle assessment and population dynamics of YSB in the growing environments of Bangladesh. In the present study, a simple model, as written in Fortran Simulation Translator (FST), was developed to assess the life cycle of YSB. The model was primarily based on growing degree day�s concept, by also considering cardinal temperatures for specific phenological/ development growth stages of YSB. The model was successfully validated with the growing environment of Bhola district of Bangladesh. Subsequently, the model was taken to assess the impact of rise in temperature on life cycle of YSB in representative locations of eight Divisions of Bangladesh. The response was spatiotemporally and seasonally variable. The life cycle hastened with the rise in temperature by 1-4 degree celcius. We, in near future, plan to develop a population dynamics model for YSB and to subsequently link it with the rice growth model to evaluate the yield reductions associated with YSB infestations.

https://lupinepublishers.com/agriculture-journal/pdf/CIACR.MS.ID.000144.pdf

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techtutor · 7 years ago

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FORTRAN program which calculates up to six decimal places of 1+1/3+1/5+-...

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chamoranwadane-blog · 6 years ago

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Introduction to the framework

Programming paradigms

From time to time, the difference in writing code using computer languages was introduced.The programming paradigm is a way to classify programming languages based on their features. For example

Functional programming

Object oriented programming.

Some computer languages support many patterns. There are two programming languages. These are non-structured programming language and structured programming language. In structured programming language are two types of category. These are block structured(functional)programming and event-driven programming language. In a non-structured programming language characteristic

earliest programming language.

A series of code.

Flow control with a GO TO statement.

Become complex as the number of lines increases as a example Basic, FORTRAN, COBOL.

Often consider program as theories of a formal logical and computations as deduction in that logical space.

Non-structured programming may greatly simplify writing parallel programs.The structured programming language characteristics are

A programming paradigm that uses statement that change a program’s state.

Structured programming focus on describing how a program operators.

The imperative mood in natural language express commands, an imperative program consist of command for the computer perform.

When considering the functional programming language and object-oriented programming language in these two languages have many differences

In here lambda calculus is formula in mathematical logic for expressing computation based on functional abstraction and application using variable binding and substitution. And lambda expressions is anonymous function that can use to create delegates or expression three type by using lambda expressions. Can write local function that can be passed as argument or returned as the value of function calls. A lambda expression is the most convenient way to create that delegate. Here an example of a simple lambda expression that defines the “plus one” function.

λx.x+1

And here no side effect meant in computer science, an operation, function or expression is said to have a side effect if it modifies some state variable values outside its local environment, that is to say has an observable effect besides returning a value to the invoke of the operation.Referential transparency meant oft-touted property of functional language which makes it easier to reason about the behavior of programs.

Key features of object-oriented programming

There are major features in object-oriented programming language. These are

Encapsulation - Encapsulation is one of the basic concepts in object-oriented programming. It describes the idea of bundling the data and methods that work on that data within an entity.

Inheritance - Inheritance is one of the basic categories of object-oriented programming languages. This is a mechanism where can get a class from one class to another, which can share a set of those characteristics and resources.

Polymorphous - Polymorphous is an object-oriented programming concept that refers to the ability of a variable, function, or object to take several forms.

Encapsulation - Encapsulation is to include inside a program object that requires all the resources that the object needs to do - basically, the methods and the data.

These things are refers to the creation of self-contain modules that bind processing functions to the data. These user-defined data types are called “classes” and one instance of a class is an “object”.

How the event-driven programming is different from other programming paradigms???

Event driven programming is a focus on the events triggered outside the system

User events

Schedulers/timers

Sensor, messages, hardware, interrupt.

Mostly related to the system with GUI where the users can interact with the GUI elements. User event listener to act when the events are triggered/fired. An internal event loop is used to identify the events and then call the necessary handler.

Software Run-time Architecture

A software architecture describes the design of the software system in terms of model components and connectors. However, architectural models can also be used on the run-time to enable the recovery of architecture and the architecture adaptation Languages can be classified according to the way they are processed and executed.

Compiled language

Scripting language

Markup language

Communication between application and OS needs additional components.The type of language used to develop application components.

Compiled language

The compiled language is a programming language whose implementation is generally compiled, and not interpreter

Some executions can be run directly on the OS. For example, C on windows. Some executable s use vertical run-time machines. For example, java.net.

Scripting language

A scripting or script language is a programming language that supports the script - a program written for a specific run-time environment that automates the execution of those tasks that are performed by a human operator alternately by one-by-one can go.

The source code is not compiled it is executed directly.At the time of execution, code is interpreted by run-time machine. For example PHP, JS.

Markup Language

The markup language is a computer language that uses tags to define elements within the document.

There is no execution process for the markup language.Tool which has the knowledge to understand markup language, can render output. For example, HTML, XML.Some other tools are used to run the system at different levels

Virtual machine

Containers/Dockers

Virtual machine

Containers

Virtual Machine Function is a function for the relation of vertical machine environments. This function enables the creation of several independent virtual machines on a physical machine which perpendicular to resources on the physical machine such as CPU, memory network and disk.

Development Tools

A programming tool or software development tool is a computer program used by software developers to create, debug, maintain, or otherwise support other programs and applications.Computer aided software engineering tools are used in the engineering life cycle of the software system.

Requirement – surveying tools, analyzing tools.

Designing – modelling tools

Development – code editors, frameworks, libraries, plugins, compilers.

Testing – test automation tools, quality assurance tools.

Implementation – VM s, containers/dockers, servers.

Maintenance – bug trackers, analytical tools.

CASE software types

Individual tools – for specific task.

Workbenches – multiple tools are combined, focusing on specific part of SDLC.

Environment – combines many tools to support many activities throughout the SDLS.

Framework vs Libraries vs plugins….

plugins

plugins provide a specific tool for development. Plugin has been placed in the project on development time, Apply some configurations using code. Run-time will be plugged in through the configuration

Libraries

To provide an API, the coder can use it to develop some features when writing the code. At the development time,

Add the library to the project (source code files, modules, packages, executable etc.)

Call the necessary functions/methods using the given packages/modules/classes.

At the run-time the library will be called by the code

Framework

Framework is a collection of libraries, tools, rules, structure and controls for the creation of software systems. At the run-time,

Create the structure of the application.

Place code in necessary place.

May use the given libraries to write code.

Include additional libraries and plugins.

At run-time the framework will call code.

A web application framework may provide

User session management.

Data storage.

A web template system.

A desktop application framework may provide

User interface functionality.

Widgets.

Frameworks are concrete

Framework consists of physical components that are usable files during production.JAVA and NET frameworks are set of concrete components like jars,dlls etc.

A framework is incomplete

The structure is not usable in its own right. Apart from this they do not leave anything empty for their user. The framework alone will not work, relevant application logic should be implemented and deployed alone with the framework. Structure trade challenge between learning curve and saving time coding.

Framework helps solving recurring problems

Very reusable because they are helpful in terms of many recurring problems. To make a framework for reference of this problem, commercial matter also means.

Framework drives the solution

The framework directs the overall architecture of a specific solution. To complete the JEE rules, if the JEE framework is to be used on an enterprise application.

Importance of frameworks in enterprise application development

Using code that is already built and tested by other programmers, enhances reliability and reduces programming time. Lower level "handling tasks, can help with framework codes. Framework often help enforce platform-specific best practices and rules.

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kanchanawijerathne-blog · 6 years ago

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Tech For Today Series - Day 1

This is first article of my Tech series. Its collection of basic stuffs of programming paradigms, Software runtime architecture ,Development tools ,Frameworks, Libraries, plugins and JAVA.

Programming paradigms

Do you know about program ancestors? Its better to have brief idea about it. In 1st generation computers used hard wired programming. In 2nd generation they used Machine language. In 3rd generation they started to use high level languages and in 4th generation they used advancement of high level language. In time been they introduced different way of writing codes(High level language).Programming paradigms are a way to classify programming language based on their features (WIKIPEDIA). There are lots of paradigms and most well-known examples are functional programming and object oriented programming.

Main target of a computer program is to solve problem with right concept. To solve problem it required different concept for different part of the problems. Because of that its important that programming languages support many paradigms. Some computer languages support multiple programming paradigms. As example c++ support both functional programming and oop.

On this article we discuss mainly about Structured programming, Non Structured Programming and event driven programming.

Non Structured Programming

Non-structured programming is the earliest programming paradigm. Line by line theirs no additional structure. Entire program is just list of code. There’s no any control structure. After sometimes they use GOTO Statement. Non Structured programming languages use only basic data types such as numbers, strings and arrays . Early versions of BASIC, Fortran, COBOL, and MUMPS are example for languages that using non structures programming language When number of lines in the code increases its hard to debug and modify, difficult to understand and error prone.

Structured programming

When the programs grows to large scale applications number of code lines are increase. Then if non structured program concept are use it will lead to above mentioned problems. To solve it Structured program paradigm is introduced. In first place they introduced Control Structures.

Control Structures.

Sequential -Code execute one by one

Selection - Use for branching the code (use if /if else /switch statements)

Iteration - Use for repetitively executing a block of code multiple times

But they realize that control structure is good to manage logic. But when it comes to programs which have more logic it will difficult to manage the program. So they introduce block structure (functional) programming and object oriented programming. There are two types of structured programming we talk in this article. Functional (Block Structured ) programming , Object oriented programming.

Functional programming

This paradigm concern about execution of mathematical functions. It take argument and return single solution. Functional programming paradigm origins from lambda calculus. " Lambda calculus is framework developed by Alonzo Church to study computations with functions. It can be called as the smallest programming language of the world. It gives the definition of what is computable. Anything that can be computed by lambda calculus is computable. It is equivalent to Turing machine in its ability to compute. It provides a theoretical framework for describing functions and their evaluation. It forms the basis of almost all current functional programming languages. Programming Languages that support functional programming: Haskell, JavaScript, Scala, Erlang, Lisp, ML, Clojure, OCaml, Common Lisp, Racket. " (geeksforgeeks). To check how lambda expression in function programming is work can refer with this link "Lambda expression in functional programming ".

Functional code is idempotent, the output value of a function depends only on the arguments that are passed to the function, so calling a function f twice with the same value for an argument x produces the same result f(x) each time .The global state of the system does not affect the result of a function. Execution of a function does not affect the global state of the system. It is referential transparent.(No side effects)

Referential transparent - In functional programs throughout the program once define the variables do not change their value. It don't have assignment statements. If we need to store variable we create new one. Because of any variable can be replaced with its actual value at any point of execution there is no any side effects. State of any variable is constant at any instant. Ex:

x = x + 1 // this changes the value assigned to the variable x.

// so the expression is not referentially transparent.

Functional programming use a declarative approach.

Procedural programming paradigm

Procedural programming is based on procedural call. Also known as procedures, routines, sub-routines, functions, methods. As procedural programming language follows a method of solving problems from the top of the code to the bottom of the code, if a change is required to the program, the developer has to change every line of code that links to the main or the original code. Procedural paradigm provide modularity and code reuse. Use imperative approach and have side effects.

Event driven programming paradigm

It responds to specific kinds of input from users. (User events (Click, drag/drop, key-press,), Schedulers/timers, Sensors, messages, hardware interrupts.) When an event occur asynchronously they placed it to event queue as they arise. Then it remove from programming queue and handle it by main processing loop. Because of that program may produce output or modify the value of a state variable. Not like other paradigms it provide interface to create the program. User must create defined class. JavaScript, Action Script, Visual Basic and Elm are the example for event-driven programming.

Object oriented Programming

Object Oriented Programming is a method of implementation in which programs are organized as a collection of objects which cooperate to solve a problem. In here program is divide in to small sub systems and they are independent unit which contain their own data and functions. Those units can reuse and solve many different programs.

Key features of object oriented concept

Object - Objects are instances of classes, which we can use to store data and perform actions.

Class - A class is a blue print of an object.

Abstraction - Abstraction is the process of removing characteristics from ‘something’ in order to reduce it to a set of essential characteristics that is needed for the particular system.

Encapsulation - Process of grouping related attributes and methods together, giving a name to the unit and providing an interface for outsiders to communicate with the unit

Information Hiding - Hide certain information or implementation decision that are internal to the encapsulation structure

Inheritance - Describes the parent child relationship between two classes.

Polymorphism - Ability of doing something in different ways. In other words it means, one method with multiple implementation, for a certain class of action

Software Runtime Architecture

Languages can be categorized according to the way they are processed and executed.

Compiled Languages

Scripting Languages

Markup Languages

The communication between the application and the OS needs additional components. Depends on the type of the language used to develop the application component. Depends on the type of the language used to develop the application component.

This is how JS code is executed.JavaScript statements that appear between <script> and </script> tags are executed in order of appearance. When more than one script appears in a file, the scripts are executed in the order in which they appear. If a script calls document. Write ( ), any text passed to that method is inserted into the document immediately after the closing </script> tag and is parsed by the HTML parser when the script finishes running. The same rules apply to scripts included from separate files with the src attribute.

To run the system in different levels there are some other tools use in the industry.

Virtual Machine

Containers/Dockers

Virtual Machine

Virtual machine is a hardware or software which enables one computer to behave like another computer system.

Development Tools

"Software development tool is a computer program that software developers use to create, debug, maintain, or otherwise support other programs and applications." (Wikipedia) CASE tools are used throughout the software life cycle.

Feasibility Study - First phase of SDLC. In this phase gain basic understand of the problem and discuss according to solution strategies (Technical feasibility, Economical feasibility, Operational feasibility, Schedule feasibility). And prepare document and submit for management approval

Requirement Analysis - Goal is to find out exactly what the customer needs. First gather requirement through meetings, interviews and discussions. Then documented in Software Requirement Specification (SRC).Use surveying tools, analyzing tools

Design - Make decisions of software, hardware and system architecture. Record this information on Design specification document (DSD). Use modelling tools

Development - A set of developers code the software as per the established design specification, using a chosen programming language .Use Code editors, frameworks, libraries, plugins, compilers

Testing - Ensures that the software requirements are in place and that the software works as expected. If there is any defect find out developers resolve it and create a new version of the software which then repeats the testing phase. Use test automation tools, quality assurance tools.

Development and Maintenance - Once software is error free give it to customer to use. If there is any error resolve them immediately. To development use VMs, containers/ Dockers, servers and for maintenance use bug trackers, analytical tools.

CASE software types

Individual tools

Workbenches

Environments

Frameworks Vs Libraries Vs Plugins

Do you know how the output of an HTML document is rendered?

This is how it happen. When browser receive raw bytes of data it convert into characters. These characters now further parsed in to tokens. The parser understands each string in angle brackets e.g "<html>", "<p>", and understands the set of rules that apply to each of them. After the tokenization is done, the tokens are then converted into nodes. Upon creating these nodes, the nodes are then linked in a tree data structure known as the DOM. The relationship between every node is established in this DOM object. When document contain with css files(css raw data) it also convert to characters, then tokenized , nodes are also formed, and finally, a tree structure is also formed . This tree structure is called CSSOM Now browser contain with DOM and CSSOM independent tree structures. Combination of those 2 we called render tree. Now browser has to calculate the exact size and position of each object on the page with the browser viewpoint (layout ). Then browser print individual node to the screen by using DOM, CSSOM , and exact layout.

JAVA

Java is general purpose programming language. It is class based object oriented and concurrent language. It let application developers to “Write Once Run anywhere “. That means java code can run on all platforms without need of recompilation. Java applications are compiled to bytecode which can run on any JVM.

Do you know��should have to edit PATH after installing JDK?

JDK has java compiler which can compile program to give outputs. SYSTEM32 is the place where executables are kept. So it can call any wear. But here you cannot copy your JDK binary to SYSTEM32 , so every time you need to compile a program , you need to put the whole path of JDK or go to the JDK binary to compile , so to cut this clutter , PATH s are made ready , if you set some path in environment variables , then Windows will make sure that any name of executable from that PATH’s folder can be executed from anywhere any time, so the path is used to make ready the JDK all the time , whether you cmd is in C: drive , D: drive or anywhere . Windows will treat it like it is in SYSTEM32 itself.

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trickslong · 3 years ago

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Approximatrix simply fortran with pgplot

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Simply Fortran highlights compiler warnings and errors within the editor as the source code is updated. For new users, a step-by-step tutorial is also available. A crash that could be caused by searching the current tab from the toolbars search box has been. The latest release fixes a number of minor issues with the development environment and incorporates some incremental enhancements requested by users. Users can quickly access documentation from the Help menu in Simply Fortran. Version 3.24 of Simply Fortran is now available from Approximatrix. You might be able to use other plotting software, PLPlot or PGPlot, with their Fortran interfaces. However, AppGraphics is quite low-level, and you'd have some work ahead of you. Included with Simply Fortran is documentation for both the integrated development environment and the Fortran compiler. With Simply Fortran for Windows, you could manually generate the color map by writing routines for AppGraphics. Simply Fortran provides autocompletion for Fortran derived types, available modules, and individual module components. Quickly create and display two-dimensional bar, line, or scatter charts from Fortran routines with ease.

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Both targets are available on all Windows platforms. Designed from the beginning for the Fortran language, Simply Fortran delivers a reliable Fortran compiler on Windows platforms with all the necessary productivity tools that professionals expect. Simply Fortran is a complete Fortran solution for Microsoft Windows and compatible operating systems. Additionally, Simply Fortran can be used on platforms compatible with Microsoft Windows, including WINE. Simply Fortran for Windows can produce both 32-bit and 64-bit code with its included compiler. A Professional Fortran Development Environment. Both 32-bit and 64-bit desktops are supported. Simply Fortran runs perfectly on versions of Microsoft Windows from Windows XP through Windows 8. When an intrinsic function or subroutine is encountered, the documentation for that procedure will be displayed as well. While entering Fortran code, Simply Fortran provides call tips for functions and subroutines declared within a user's project. The Simply Fortran package includes a configured GNU Fortran compiler installation, an integrated development environment, a graphical debugger, and a collection of other development necessities.Īpproximatrix Simply Fortran is an inexpensive way for anyone to productively develop using the Fortran language. Simply Fortran delivers a reliable Fortran compiler on Windows platforms with all the necessary productivity tools that professionals expect. Simply Fortran is a new, complete Fortran solution designed from the beginning for interoperability with GNU Fortran.

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attoinfotech123 · 4 years ago

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Understanding the Language of Computers

Many of us may have this doubt about how computers understand these many languages. We do hear about the programming languages such as to Hire Php Developers India etc. However, talking about the bigger world than Hire Php Developers India to get clarity, you people have to read this article. First of all, a computer does not end with the diameter of Hire Php Developers India, but also it is nothing but an electronic device which is used for computing. Something like arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction etc. or to find roots of a quadratic equation. Some people say Computer stands for Common Operating Machine Purposely Used for Technological and Educational Research.

Computers play an important role in our day-to-day life and many of us are using them regularly for various purposes. Around the world we have many languages and how does a computer understand human language? Do computers have super powers like the Avengers? No, Not at all. For this there is a key called Programming language. In simple words, programming language is a tool used to do a job.

Then why do we have a number of programming languages? We have many programming languages because each and every programming language does different jobs. For example, To cook any sweet we can use sugar or jaggery. We can choose any one of them or both. Both are sweet but a slight difference in their taste varies the taste of the recipe. Similarly, we have various programming languages for various purposes.

In the view of understanding the capability of the computer, we generally have two types of languages. High-level language and Low-level language. High level language is human readable language which is similar to our normal language. Low level language is an understandable language of machines ( Binary language). Low level languages are assembly languages. In simple words Machine languages. Machines can understand only binary language that consists of 0's and 1's. Now comes the point.

A programming language is the language consisting of a set of instructions that produce some outputs. High level languages are nothing but C language, Javascript, PHP, Python, Ruby etc. But the first programming language is said to be FORTRAN. We write in these high level languages and then compile them with the help of some compilers. Compilers are nothing but which are used to convert high level language to low level language. Something tricky right? The code we write in any of these high level languages is first compiled and an executable file is obtained which is now understandable by computers.

So now we came to the conclusion that the computer is not multi-linguistic but it can understand only Binary language but every high level language can be converted into this language.

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douchebagbrainwaves · 4 years ago

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OK, I'LL TELL YOU YOU ABOUT IDEAS

Object-oriented programming in the 1980s. If it can work to start a startup. Instead of building stuff to throw away, you tend to want every line of code to go toward that final goal of showing you did a lot of startups grow out of them. Already spreading to pros I know you're skeptical they'll ever get hotels, but there's no way anything so short and written in such an informal style could have anything useful to say about such and such topic, when people with degrees in the subject have already written many thick books about it. Those are both good things to be. I don't mean that as some kind of answer for, but not random: I found my doodles changed after I started studying painting. When someone's working on a problem that seems too big, I always ask: is there some way to give the startups the money, though. What would it even mean to make theorems a commodity? There seem to be an artist, which is even shorter than the Perl form.1 However, a city could select good startups.2

Tcl, and supply the Lisp together with a complete system for supporting server-based applications, where you can throw together an unbelievably inefficient version 1 of a program very quickly. Or at least discard any code you wrote while still employed and start over. But a hacker can learn quickly enough that car means the first element of a list and cdr means the rest. If an increasing number of startups founded by people who know the subject from experience, but for doing things other people want. It could be the reason they don't have any.3 An interactive language, with a small core of well understood and highly orthogonal operators, just like the core language, that would be better for programming. The more of a language as a set of axioms, surely it's gross to have additional axioms that add no expressive power, simply for the sake of efficiency.

One of the MROSD trails runs right along the fault. When you're young you're more mobile—not just because you don't have to be downloaded. The fact is, most startups end up doing something different than they planned. The three old guys didn't get it. PL/1: Fortran doesn't have enough data types. What programmers in a hundred years? Just wait till all the 10-room pensiones in Rome discover this site.4 Common Lisp I have often wanted to iterate through the fields of a struct—to push performance data to the programmer instead of waiting for him to come asking for it. It would be too much of a political liability just to give the startups the money, though. And they are a classic example of this approach. For one thing, real problems are rare and valuable skill, and the de facto censorship imposed by publishers is a useful if imperfect filter.

I'm just not sure how big it's going to seem hard. Often, indeed, it is not dense enough. If the hundred year language were available today, would we want to program in today. Of course, the most recent true counterexample is probably 1960. A friend of mine rarely does anything the first time someone asks him. As a young founder by present standards, so you have to spend years working to learn this stuff. The market doesn't give a shit how hard you worked.

You can write programs to solve, but I never have. One advantage of this approach is that it gives you fewer options for the future. Otherwise Robert would have been too late. Look at how much any popular language has changed during its life.5 Java also play a role—but I think it is the most powerful motivator of all—more powerful even than the nominal goal of most startup founders, and I felt it had to be prepared to explain how it's recession-proof is to do what hackers enjoy doing anyway. The real question is, how far up the ladder of abstraction will parallelism go? Anything that can be implicit, should be. New York Times, which I still occasionally buy on weekends. So I think it might be better to follow the model of Tcl, and supply the Lisp together with a lot of them weren't initially supposed to be startups. It's because staying close to the main branches of the evolutionary tree pass through the languages that have the smallest, cleanest cores. The way to learn about startups is by watching them in action, preferably by working at one. At the very least it will teach you how to write software with users.

Few if any colleges have classes about startups. All they saw were carefully scripted campaign spots. It might help if they were expressed that way. It's enormously spread out, and feels surprisingly empty much of the reason is that faster hardware has allowed programmers to make different tradeoffs between speed and convenience, depending on the application.6 At the top schools, I'd guess as many as a quarter of the CS majors could make it as startup founders if they wanted is an important qualification—so important that it's almost cheating to append it like that—because once you get over a certain threshold of intelligence, which most CS majors at top schools are past, the deciding factor in whether you succeed as a founder is how much you want to say and ad lib the individual sentences. This essay is derived from a talk at the 2005 Startup School. Preposterous as this plan sounds, it's probably the most efficient way a city could select good startups. Most will say that any ideas you think of new ideas is practically virgin territory. Exactly the opposite, in fact. Whatever computers are made of, and conversations with friends are the kitchen they're cooked in.7 That was exactly what the world needed in 1975, but if there was any VC who'd get you guys, it would at least make a great pseudocode.

If this is a special case of my more general prediction that most of them grew organically. Writing software as multiple layers is a powerful technique even within applications. The more of your software will be reusable. Using first and rest instead of car and cdr often are, in successive lines. Of course, I'm making a big assumption in even asking what programming languages will be like in a hundred years? It must be terse, simple, and hackable. It becomes: let's try making a web-based app they'd seen, it seemed like there was nothing to it. Both customers and investors will be feeling pinched.8

The main complaint of the more articulate critics was that Arc seemed so flimsy. That's how programmers read code anyway: when indentation says one thing and delimiters say another, we go by the indentation. You need that resistance, just as low notes travel through walls better than high ones. Maybe this would have been a junior professor at that age, and he wouldn't have had time to work on things that maximize your future options. How much would that take? It's important to realize that there's no market for startup ideas suggests there's no demand.9 You'll certainly like meeting them. It's not the sort of town you have before you try this. This essay is derived from a talk at the 2005 Startup School. I'm not a very good sign to me that ideas just pop into my head.

Notes

Dan wrote a prototype in Basic in a series A rounds from top VC funds whether it was 10.

With the good groups, just harder. Which in turn the most successful founders still get rich from a startup could grow big by transforming consulting into a great one.

There are two simplifying assumptions: that the only way to create events and institutions that bring ambitious people together. A has an operator for removing spaces from strings and language B doesn't, that's not as facile a trick as it was putting local grocery stores out of their portfolio companies. If the next one will be familiar to anyone who had worked for a really long time? One new thing the company they're buying.

If I paint someone's house, the growth in wealth in a bar. I didn't need to warn readers about, just as much the better, but they start to be about 50%. Together these were the impressive ones. Other investors might assume that P spam and P nonspam are both.

All he's committed to is following the evidence wherever it leads. The point where things start with consumer electronics.

If they're on boards of directors they're probably a cause them to keep them from the VCs' point of a press hit, but that we wouldn't have understood why: If you have two choices and one or two, and so on. But if so, or in one where life was tougher, the same reason parents don't tell the whole story. Incidentally, the switch in mid-twenties the people they want.

Trevor Blackwell points out, First Round Capital is closer to a clueless audience like that, except in the median VC loses money. Unless of course reflects a willful misunderstanding of what you care about, just those you should seek outside advice, and this trick, and so don't deserve to keep them from leaving to start or join startups. There is not much to seem big that they only even consider great people.

You also have to do it right. In every other respect they're constantly being told that they are bleeding cash really fast. Probably more dangerous to Microsoft than Netscape was.

In theory you could probably improve filter performance by incorporating prior probabilities. If you have the concept of the reason for the coincidence that Greg Mcadoo, our contact at Sequoia, was no great risk in doing a small proportion of the subject of language power in Succinctness is Power. As I was there was near zero crossover. Some urban renewal experts took a shot at destroying Boston's in the evolution of the next year they worked.

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hunteratwork958 · 4 years ago

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This Open Source and cross-platform application provides a free source code editor

What's new in SciTE 4.3.0:

Scintilla is a free, open source library that provides a text editing component function, with an emphasis on advanced features for source code editing. Labels: scite - scite, scintilla, performance, selection, rectangular; status: open - open-fixed; assignedto: Neil Hodgson Neil Hodgson - 2019-11-02 Performance improved by reusing surface with. For a 100 MB file containing repeated copies of SciTEBase.cxx, selecting first 80 pixels of each of the first 1,000,000 lines took 64 seconds. Built both Scintilla and SciTE. Grumbled and cursed. What am I doing wrong, except maybe step 12? Lexer scintilla scite umn-mapserver. Improve this question. Follow edited Jul 21 '10 at 8:50. 30.3k 14 14 gold badges 98 98 silver badges 129 129 bronze badges.

Lexers made available as Lexilla library. TestLexers program with tests for Lexilla and lexers added in lexilla/test.

SCI_SETILEXER implemented to use lexers from Lexilla or other sources.

ILexer5 interface defined provisionally to support use of Lexilla. The details of this interface may change before being stabilised in Scintilla 5.0.

SCI_LOADLEXERLIBRARY implemented on Cocoa.

Read the full changelog

SciTE is an open source, cross-platform and freely distributed graphical software based on the ScIntilla project, implemented in C++ and GTK+, designed from the offset to act as a source code editor application for tailored specifically for programmers and developers.

The application proved to be very useful for writing and running various applications during the last several years. https://hunteratwork958.tumblr.com/post/653727911297351680/argumentative-research-paper-outline. Among its key features, we can mention syntax styling, folding, call tips, error indicators and code completion.

It supports a wide range of programming languages, including C, C++, C#, CSS, Fortran, PHP, Shell, Ruby, Python, Batch, Assembler, Ada, D, Plain Text, Makefile, Matlab, VB, Perl, YAML, TeX, Hypertext, Difference, Lua, Lisp, Errorlist, VBScript, XML, TCL, SQL, Pascal, JavaScript, Java, as well as Properties.

Getting started with SciTE

Unfortunately, SciTE is distributed only as a gzipped source archive in the TGZ file format and installing it is not the easiest of tasks. Therefore, if it isn’t already installed on your GNU/Linux operating system (various distributions come pre-loaded with SciTE), we strongly recommend to open your package manager, search for the scite package and install it.

After installation, you can open the program from the main menu of your desktop environment, just like you would open any other install application on your system. It will be called SciTE Text Editor.

The software presents itself with an empty document and a very clean and simple graphical user interface designed with the cross-platform GTK+ GUI toolkit. Only a small menu bar is available, so you can quickly access the built-in tools, various settings, change, buffers, and other useful options.

Supported operating systems

SciTE (SCIntilla based Text Editor) is a multiplatform software that runs well on Linux (Ubuntu, Fedora, etc.), FreeBSD and Microsoft Windows (Windows 95, NT 4.0, Windows 2000, Windows 7, etc.) operating systems.

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SciTE was reviewed by Marius Nestor

5.0/5

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SciTE 4.3.0

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Scintilla

Screenshot of SciTE, which uses the Scintilla component

Developer(s)Neil Hodgson, et al.(1)Initial releaseMay 17, 1999; 21 years agoStable release5.0.1 (9 April 2021; 20 days ago) (±)RepositoryWritten inC++Operating systemWindows NT and later, Mac OS 10.6 and later, Unix-like with GTK+, MorphOSTypeText editorLicenseHistorical Permission Notice and Disclaimer(2)Websitescintilla.org

Scintilla is a free, open sourcelibrary that provides a text editing component function, with an emphasis on advanced features for source code editing.

Features(edit)

Scintilla supports many features to make code editing easier in addition to syntax highlighting. The highlighting method allows the use of different fonts, colors, styles and background colors, and is not limited to fixed-width fonts. The control supports error indicators, line numbering in the margin, as well as line markers such as code breakpoints. Other features such as code folding and autocompletion can be added. The basic regular expression search implementation is rudimentary, but if compiled with C++11 support Scintilla can support the runtime's regular expression engine. Scintilla's regular expression library can also be replaced or avoided with direct buffer access.

Currently, Scintilla has experimental support for right-to-left languages, and no support for boustrophedon languages.(3)

Php echo array value. Apr 26, 2020 Use vardump Function to Echo or Print an Array in PHP The vardump function is used to print the details of any variable or expression. It prints the array with its index value, the data type of each element, and length of each element. It provides the structured information of the variable or array.

Scinterm is a version of Scintilla for the cursestext user interface. It is written by the developer of the Textadept editor. Scinterm uses Unicode characters to support some of Scintilla's graphically oriented features, but some Scintilla features are missing because of the terminal environment's constraints.(4)

Other versions(edit)

ScintillaNET(5) – a wrapper for use on the .NET Framework

QScintilla(6) – Qt port of Scintilla

wxScintilla(7) – wxWidgets-wrapper for Scintilla

Delphi wrappers:

TScintEdit(8) – part of Inno Setup.

TDScintilla(9) – simple wrapper for all methods of Scintilla.

TScintilla(10) – Delphi Scintilla Interface Component (as of 2009-09-02, this project is no longer under active development).

Software based on Scintilla(edit)

Notable software based on Scintilla includes:(11)

Plex web access. From the people who brought you Free Live TV. Plex has free movies too! Stream over 14,000 free on-demand movies and shows from Warner Brothers, Crackle, Lionsgate, MGM, and more. Plex brings together all the media that matters to you. Your personal collection will look beautiful alongside stellar streaming content. Enjoy Live TV & DVR, a growing catalog of great web shows, news, and podcasts. It's finally possible to enjoy all the media you love in a single app, on any device, no matter where you are. Feb 28, 2019 You can access the Plex Web App via two main methods: Hosted from the plex.tv website Locally through your Plex Media Server Both methods can provide you with the same basic web app.

Aegisub(12)

Altova XMLSpy(13)

Ch(14)

ConTEXT(15)

Inno Setup Compiler IDE (as of 5.4(16))

PureBasic(17)

TextAdept(18)

Uniface(19)

Scite Scintilla Text Editor

References(edit)

^'Scintilla and SciTE'. Scintilla. Retrieved 2013-08-12.

^'License.txt'. Scintilla. Retrieved 29 May 2015.

^'Scintilla Documentation'.

^'Scinterm'.

^'ScintillaNET – Home'. Scintillanet.github.com. Retrieved 2017-05-18.

^'Riverbank | Software | QScintilla | What is QScintilla?'. Riverbankcomputing.com. Retrieved 2013-08-12.

^'wxScintilla – Scintilla wrapper for wxWidgets – Sourceforge'. Nuklear Zelph. Retrieved 2015-04-20.

^'Inno Setup Downloads'. Jrsoftware.org. Retrieved 2013-08-12.

^'dscintilla – Scintilla wrapper for Delphi – Google Project Hosting'. Dscintilla.googlecode.com. 2013-04-11. Retrieved 2013-08-12.

^'Delphi Scintilla Interface Components | Free Development software downloads at'. Sourceforge.net. Retrieved 2013-08-12.

^'Scintilla and SciTE Related Sites'. Scintilla.org. Retrieved 2013-08-12.

^'#1095 (Option to switch the subs edit box to a standard text edit) – Aegisub'. Devel.aegisub.org. Archived from the original on 2014-07-10. Retrieved 2013-08-12.

^http://www.altova.com/legal_3rdparty.html

^'ChIDE'. Softintegration.com. Retrieved 2013-08-12.

^'uSynAttribs.pas'.

^'Inno Setup 5 Revision History'. Jrsoftware.org. Retrieved 2013-08-12.

^A little PureBasic review

^'Technology'. Textadept uses Scintilla as its core editing component

^'Technology'. Uniface 10 uses Scintilla as its core code editor

External links(edit)

Scite Scintilla

Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scintilla_(software)&oldid=1011984059'

0 notes

erossiniuk · 4 years ago

Text

Fifty years of Pascal

I don’t know you but it seems yesterday for me I started to code with Basic on my VIC20 and Pascal a couple of years later and now we celebrate fifty years of Pascal. Can’t believe that.

The beginning

In the early 1960s, the languages Fortran (John Backus, IBM) for scientific, and Cobol (Jean Sammet, IBM, and DoD) for commercial applications dominated. Programs were written on paper, then punched on cards, and one waited a day for the results. Programming languages were recognized as essential aids and accelerators of the programming process.

In 1960, an international committee published the language Algol 60. It was the first time a language was defined by concisely formulated constructs and by a precise, formal syntax. Two years later, it was recognized that a few corrections and improvements were needed. Mainly, however, the range of applications should be widened, because Algol 60 was intended for scientific calculations (numerical mathematics) only. Under the auspices of IFIP a Working Group (WG 2.1) was established to tackle this project.

The group consisted of about 40 members with almost the same number of opinions and views about what a successor of Algol should look like. There ensued many discussions, and on occasions the debates ended even bitterly. Early in 1964 I became a member, and soon was requested to prepare a concrete proposal. Two factions had developed in the committee. One of them aimed at a second, after Algol 60, milestone, a language with radically new, untested concepts and pervasive flexibility. It later became known as Algol 68. The other faction remained more modest and focused on realistic improvements of known concepts. After all, time was pressing: PL/1 of IBM was about to appear. However, my proposal, although technically realistic, succumbed to the small majority that favored a milestone.

Poster of Pascal’s syntax diagrams strongly identified with Pascal

The group

It is never sufficient to merely postulate a language on paper. A solid compiler also had to be built, which usually was a highly complex program. In this respect, large industrial firms had an advantage over our Working Group, which had to rely on enthusiasts at universities. I left the Group in 1966 and devoted myself together with a few doctoral students at Stanford University to the construction of a compiler for my proposal. The result was the language Algol W,2 which after 1967 came into use at many locations on large IBM computers. It became quite successful. The milestone Algol 68 did appear and then sank quickly into obscurity under its own weight, although a few of its concepts did survive into subsequent languages.

But in my opinion Algol W was not perfectly satisfactory. It still contained too many compromises, having emerged from a committee. After my return to Switzerland, I designed a language after my own preferences: Pascal. Together with a few assistants, we wrote a user manual and constructed a compiler. In the course of it, we had a dire experience. We intended to describe the compiler in Pascal itself, then translate it manually to Fortran, and finally compile the former with the latter. This resulted in a great failure, because of the lack of data structures (records) in Fortran, which made the translation very cumbersome. After this unfortunate, expensive lesson, a second try succeeded, where in place of Fortran the local language Scallop (M. Engeli) was used.

Pascal

Like its precursor Algol 60, Pascal featured a precise definition and a few lucid, basic elements. Its structure, the syntax, was formally defined in Extended BNF. Statements described assignments of values to variables, and conditional and repeated execution. Additionally, there were procedures, and they were recursive. A significant extension were data types and structures: Its elementary data types were integers and real numbers, Boolean values, characters, and enumerations (of constants). The structures were arrays, records, files (sequences), and pointers. Procedures featured two kinds of parameters, value-and variable-parameters. Procedures could be used recursively. Most essential was the pervasive concept of data type: Every constant, variable, or function was of a fixed, static type. Thereby programs included much redundancy that a compiler could use for checking type consistency. This contributed to the detection of errors, and this before the program’s execution.

Algor

Just as important as addition of features were deletions (with respect to Algol). As C.A.R. Hoare once remarked: A language is characterized not only by what it permits programmers to specify, but even more so by what it does not allow. In this vein, Algol’s name parameter was omitted. It was rarely used, and caused considerable complications for a compiler. Also, Algol’s own concept was deleted, which allowed local variables to be global, to “survive” the activation of the procedure to which it was declared local. Algol’s for statement was drastically simplified, eliminating complex and hard to understand constructs. But the while and repeat statements were added for simple and transparent situations of repetition. Nevertheless, the controversial goto statement remained. I considered it too early for the programming community to swallow its absence. It would have been too detrimental for a general acceptance of Pascal.

Pascal was easy to teach, and it covered a wide spectrum of applications, which was a significant advantage over Algol, Fortran, and Cobol. The Pascal System was efficient, compact, and easy to use. The language was strongly influenced by the new discipline of structured programming, advocated primarily by E.W. Dijkstra to avert the threatening software crisis (1968).

Pascal was published in 1970 and for the first time used in large courses at ETH Zurich on a grand scale. We had even defined a subset Pascal-S and built a smaller compiler, in order to save computing time and memory space on our large CDC computer, and to reduce the turnaround time for students. Back then, computing time and memory space were still scarce.

Pascal’s Spread and Distribution

Soon Pascal became noticed at several universities, and interest rose for its use in classes. We received requests for possible help in implementing compilers for other large computers. It was my idea to postulate a hypothetical computer, which would be simple to realize on various other mainframes, and for which we would build a Pascal compiler at ETH. The hypothetical computer would be quickly implementable with relatively little effort using readily available tools (assemblers). Thus emerged the architecture Pascal-P (P for portable), and this technique proved to be extremely successful. The first clients came from Belfast (C.A.R. Hoare). Two assistants brought two heavy cartons of punched cards to Zurich, the compiler they had designed for their ICL computer. At the border, they were scrutinized, for there was the suspicion that the holes might contain secrets subject to custom fees. All this occurred without international project organizations, without bureaucracy and research budgets. It would be impossible today.

An interesting consequence of these developments was the emergence of user groups, mostly of young enthusiasts who wanted to promote and distribute Pascal. Their core resided under Andy Mickel in Minneapolis, where they regularly published a Pascal Newsletter. This movement contributed significantly to the rapid spread of Pascal.

First microcomputer

Several years later the first microcomputers appeared on the market. These were small computers with a processor integrated on a single chip and with 8-bit data paths, affordable by private persons. It was recognized that Pascal was suitable for these processors, due to its compact compiler that would fit into the small memory (64K). A group under Ken Bowles at the University of San Diego, and Philippe Kahn at Borland Inc. in Santa Cruz surrounded our compiler with a simple operating system, a text editor, and routines for error discovery and diagnostics. They sold this package for $50 on floppy disks (Turbo Pascal). Thereby Pascal spread immediately, particularly in schools, and it became the entry point for many to programming and computer science. Our Pascal manual became a best-seller.

This spreading did not remain restricted to America and Europe. Russia and China welcomed Pascal with enthusiasm. This I became aware of only later, during my first travels to China (1982) and Russia (1990), when I was presented with a copy of our manual written in (for me) illegible characters and symbols.

Pascal’s Successors

But time did not stand still. Rapidly computers became faster, and therefore demands on applications grew, as well as those on programmers. No longer were programs developed by single persons. Now they were being built by teams. Constructs had to be offered by languages that supported teamwork. A single person could design a part of a system, called a module, and do this relatively independently of other modules. Modules would later be linked and loaded automatically. Already Fortran had offered this facility, but now a linker would have to verify the consistency of data types also across module boundaries. This was not a simple matter!

Modules with type consistency checking across boundaries were indeed the primary extension of Pascal’s first successor Modula-2 (for modular language, 1979). It evolved from Pascal, but also from Mesa, a language developed at Xerox PARC for system programming, which itself originated from Pascal. Mesa, however, had grown too wildly and needed “taming.” Modula-2 also included elements for system programming, which admitted constructs that depended on specific properties of a computer, as they were necessary for interfaces to peripheral devices or networks. This entailed sacrificing the essence of higher languages, namely machine-independent programming. Fortunately, however, such parts could now be localized in specific “low-level” modules, and thereby be properly isolated.

Apart from this, Modula contained constructs for programming concurrent processes (or quasiparallel threads). “Parallel programming” was the dominant theme of the 1970s. Overall, Modula-2 grew rather complex and became too complicated for my taste, and for teaching programming. An improvement and simplification appeared desirable.

Oberon

From such deliberations emerged the language Oberon, again after a sabbatical at Xerox PARC. No longer were mainframe computers in use, but powerful workstations with high-resolution displays and interactive usage. For this purpose, the language and interactive operating system Cedar had been developed at PARC. Once again, a drastic simplification and consolidation seemed desirable. So, an operating system, a compiler, and a text editor were programmed at ETH for Oberon. This was achieved by only two programmers—Wirth and Gutknecht—in their spare time over six months. Oberon was published in 1988. The language was influenced by the new discipline of object-oriented programming. However, no new features were introduced except type extension. Thereby for the first time a language was created that was not more complex, but rather simpler, yet even more powerful than its ancestor. A highly desirable goal had finally been reached.

Even today Oberon is successfully in use in many places. A breakthrough like Pascal’s, however, did not occur. Complex, commercial systems are too widely used and entrenched. But it can be claimed that many of those languages, like Java (Sun Microsystems) and C# (Microsoft) have been strongly influenced by Oberon or Pascal.

Around 1995 electronic components that are dynamically reprogrammable at the gate level appeared on the market. These field programmable gate arrays (FPGA) can be configured into almost any digital circuit. The difference between hardware and software became increasingly diffuse. I developed the language Lola (logic language) with similar elements and the same structure as Oberon for describing digital circuits. Increasingly, circuits became specified by formal texts, replacing graphical circuit diagrams. This facilitates the common design of hardware and software, which has become increasingly important in practice.

Download and run Turbo Pascal in DosBox

Now, if you want to run Turbo Pascal on your Windows 10 machine, you need an virtual environment where MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System) can run under Windows.

So, I found DosBox Frontend Reloaded. D-Fend Reloaded is a graphical environment for DOSBox. DOSBox emulates a complete computer including the DOS command line and allows to run nearly all old DOS based games on modern hardware with any of the newer Windows versions.

With DOSBox there is no need to worry about memory managers or free conventional RAM, but the setup of DOSBox is still a bit complicated. The configuration of DOSBox via textbased setup files might be difficult for beginners. D-Fend Reloaded may help and create these files for you. Additionally the D-Fend Reloaded installation package contains DOSBox (including all lanuage files currently available), so there is only one installation to be run and no need to link D-Fend Reloaded with DOSBox manually. Now, install D-Fend following the wizard.

Then, you can download a copy of Turbo Pascal 7.1 from Vetusware.com that collects free abandonware.

After the installation of D-Fend, under your user in Windows 10, you find D-Fend Reloaded folder and in it VirtualHD folder.

Where is the VirtualHD for D-Fend Reloaded?

In VirtualHD folder, create a new folder like TP7 and in this one extract the file from Vetusware.com.

Extract file for Turbo Pascal 7

Now, run D-Fend Reloaded and click on the button Add and select Add with wizard. Skip the first page of the wizard and them you have to select the Program to be started. Click on the button at the end of the textbox and then select TURBO.EXE under BIN under TP7.

Create new profile

Click Next until the end of the wizard. Then, from the list, right-click on the profile you have just created and select Edit. Then, click on DOS environment and check the PATH

Z:\;C:\TP7;C:\TP7\UTILS;C:\TP7\UNITS;C:\TP7\EXE;

Profile editor for Turbo Pascal

Then, you are ready. Double click on the profile and your Turbo Pascal 7.1 is up and running.

Turbo Pascal 7.1

Do you remember the Help? Ok, I know, this is a sign of my age.

Turbo Pascal 7.1 Help

The post Fifty years of Pascal appeared first on PureSourceCode.

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#News #pascal #retrocomputers

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bestdevopscourse · 4 years ago

Text

Better for Data Analysis: R or Python

Since R changed into constructed as a statistical language, it suits an awful lot better to do statistical getting to know. ... Python, alternatively, is a higher desire for device studying with its flexibility for production use, particularly when the facts analysis obligations need to be integrated with internet programs.

In addition, due to the fact applied data science with python, it is simpler to write massive-scale, maintainable, and robust code with it than with R. ... The language is likewise slowly turning into greater beneficial for duties like machine studying, and fundamental to intermediate statistical work (previously just R's domain).

R for statistics evaluation:

R is a language and environment for statistical computing and photographs. ... R gives a extensive type of statistical (linear and nonlinear modelling, classical statistical assessments, time-series evaluation, type, clustering, …) and graphical techniques, and is especially extensible.

R is a language and surroundings for statistical computing and portraits. It is a GNU task that's much like the S language and surroundings which turned into evolved at Bell Laboratories (formerly AT&T, now Lucent Technologies) by means of John Chambers and associates. R may be considered as a one-of-a-kind implementation of S. There are a few crucial variations, but lots code written for S runs unaltered underneath R.

The R surroundings

R is an integrated suite of software program centers for information manipulation, calculation and graphical show. It includes,

an effective statistics coping with and garage facility,

a set of operators for calculations on arrays, in particular matrices,

a huge, coherent, included series of intermediate tools for data analysis,

graphical facilities for statistics evaluation and show either on-display screen or on hardcopy

a properly-advanced, simple and effective programming language which includes conditionals, loops, person-defined recursive functions and input and output centers.

The time period “environment” is intended to represent it as a completely deliberate and coherent device, in preference to an incremental accretion of very precise and inflexible gear, as is regularly the case with other data analysis software program.

R, like S, is designed round a real computer language, and it lets in customers to add additional functionality through defining new functions. Much of the machine is itself written within the R dialect of S, which makes it clean for users to follow the algorithmic alternatives made. For computationally-in depth responsibilities, C, C++ and Fortran code can be linked and known as at run time. Advanced customers can write C code to control R gadgets at once.

Many customers think of R as a data device. We opt to think about it as an environment within which statistical techniques are applied. R can be prolonged (without problems) via programs. There are about eight programs furnished with the R distribution and plenty of greater are to be had via the CRAN own family of Internet web sites masking a very extensive range of cutting-edge information.

R has its very own LaTeX-like documentation format, that is used to supply comprehensive documentation, each on-line in some of codecs and in hardcopy.

Python for statistics analysis:

There is a number of distinguished programming languages to make use of for information reduction. C, C++, R, Java, Javascript, and Python are some amongst them. Each one offers unique features, alternatives, and gear that suit the distinctive demands depending in your wishes. Some are better than others for specific enterprise desires. For instance, one enterprise survey states Python has hooked up itself as a leading desire for developing fintech software program and other application areas.

There are two major elements that make Python a broadly-used programming language in clinical computing, especially:

the stunning ecosystem;

a extremely good wide variety of statistics-orientated feature applications that can accelerate and simplify statistics processing, making it time-saving.

In addition to that, Python is first of all utilized for actualizing records evaluation. It is amongst those languages which might be being advanced on an ongoing foundation. Thereby, Python is called the topmost language with a high potential within the statistics technological know-how subject extra than other programming languages.

What Makes Python a Fantastic Option for Data Analysis?

Python is a go-useful, maximally interpreted language that has masses of advantages to offer. The object-orientated programming language is commonly used to streamline big complicated records sets. Over and above, having a dynamic semantics plus unmeasured capacities of RAD(fast software improvement), Python is heavily applied to script as properly. There is one greater manner to apply Python – as a coupling language.

Another Python’s gain is high clarity that helps engineers to shop time by using typing fewer strains of code for accomplishing the responsibilities. Being speedy, Python jibes well with facts evaluation. And that’s because of heavy aid; availability of an entire slew of open-source libraries for distinctive functions, which include however not confined to scientific computing.

Therefore, it’s not sudden in any respect that it’s claimed to be the desired programming language for statistics technological know-how. There is a scope of particular capabilities supplied that makes Python a-variety-one alternative for statistics evaluation. Seeing is believing. So, simply permit’s overlook every alternative one after the other.

Easy to Learn

Being involved in development for net services, mobile apps, or coding, you've got a perception that Python is widely diagnosed thanks to its clean syntax and clarity. Yes, those are the maximum well-known language characteristics.

Well-Supported

Having the experience of using a few equipment without cost, you probably realize that it's far a task to get decent guide.

Flexibility

The cool options don’t cease there. So, let’s take a look at every other reason why Python is without a doubt a super choice for facts processing.

Scalability

This Python’s feature is defined proper after the power, no longer through accident, however because it is intently related with the preceding option. Comparing with other languages like R, Go, and Rust, Python is lots quicker and greater scalable.

Huge Libraries Collection

As we have already noted, Python is one of the maximum supported languages these days. It has a long listing of definitely free libraries available for all of the users.

Exceeding Python Community

It’s a form of open-source language. That means you get at least two sturdy blessings. Python is unfastened, plus it employs a network-based model for development.

Graphics and Visualization Tools

It’s a famous truth that visual information is a great deal easier to understand, function, and keep in mind.

Extended Pack of Analytics Tools Available

Straight once you gather records, you’re to handle it. Python suits this reason supremely properly.

Bottom Line

The fulfillment of your business immediately relies upon at the capacity to extract knowledge and insights from statistics to make powerful strategic choices, stay competitive, and make progress. Python is the the world over acclaimed programming language to help in dealing with your information in a higher manner for a diffusion of causes.

First and important, it's miles one of the maximum smooth-to-study languages, pretty simple in use, with the best fee ever (sincerely, it’s unfastened!), with an top notch p.C. Of features provided.

Increasingly famous: In the September 2019 Tiobe index of the maximum famous programming languages, Python is the 1/3 maximum popular programming language (and has grown by using over 2% in the closing year), whereas R has dropped over the past year from 18th to 19th area.

#applied data science with python

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little-p-eng-engineering · 5 years ago

Link

Application of Computer-Aided Design to Piping Layout

February 16, 2018

P.Eng.

Meena Rezkallah

The piping engineering industry today is very diverse in its use of computer-aided design. This diversity is shown by the various levels of sophistication of the CAD applications in use by different segments of the industry. Even within the same company, the sophistication of CAD use can vary widely from discipline to discipline, department to department. This diversity ranges from a surprisingly large portion of the industry in which there is little use of CAD to a few who claim to be approaching a paperless ofﬁce. Between these two extremes, most of the industry appears to be using CAD as computer-aided drafting. In this sense, CAD becomes an electronic pencil, not necessarily a design tool.

The meaning of the term CAD has evolved as quickly as the technology itself. From its original use as an acronym for computer-aided drafting, it has spawned a whole family of related acronyms: CADD (computer-aided drafting and design), CAE (computer-aided engineering), CAM (computer-aided manufacturing), and so on. Many of these terms have been applied when describing the design and layout of piping systems. In the minds of many people, CAD and its related acronyms are still envisioned as simply automated drafting, where CAD is basically the substitution of drawing boards with CAD terminals. While computer-aided drafting represents a signiﬁcant portion of the application of CAD to piping layout, this is changing rapidly. In this section, applications beyond simple drafting will be dis-cussed. Therefore the acronym CAD will mean computer-aided design and will refer to both design and drafting activities related to piping layout.

The entire ﬁeld of design automation, including CAD, is changing so rapidly that it would be of little value to make recommendations regarding speciﬁc hardware and software systems. What may be the best or most cost-effective system today may be out of the picture tomorrow. However, there are some fundamental issues associated with the selection and implementation of a CAD system which should be considered, regardless of the speciﬁc supplier of hardware and software.

Computer-Aided Drafting

Currently, as indicated previously, the most signiﬁcant use of CAD for piping layout is for drafting. Many software systems exist which can function on nearly every type of computer hardware available, including mainframe computers, minicomputers, workstations, and personal computers. Today, the use of CAD for two-dimensional drafting is dominated by CAD software for personal computers. In selecting a system for producing piping drawings, there are several issues which must be considered, regardless of the hardware to be used.

User-Deﬁnable Symbols and Menus. Any CAD software, if it is to be of long-term beneﬁt, must provide the capability to deﬁne its own drafting symbols and menus (e.g., tablet, on-screen) for selecting these symbols. Since piping drawings make extensive use of symbology, deﬁning symbols is of critical importance for signiﬁcantly increasing drafting productivity. This capability allows the user organization to create and manage libraries of its own symbols, standard details, and standard notes, which can be easily and automatically included in any drawing.

Use of Standard Hardware. Traditionally, many CAD systems were provided by the vendor as a turnkey system that included both hardware and software. In these cases, the CAD software was designed to operate speciﬁcally on the hardware provided by the vendor. Today, however, many vendors have decoupled the hard-ware and software, which allows the software to run on a number of hardware platforms. In fact, most of the major providers of CAD software for drafting provide only software, with the users acquiring the hardware and operating system independently. This is particularly true for the personal-computer-based CAD systems. By selecting software which can function on a number of types of hardware,the user has the ﬂexibility to more fully take advantage of rapid changes in the hardware market, i.e., decreasing prices with improved performance. If the CAD software can function only on the hardware from one speciﬁc vendor, then the user must rely on the hardware vendor to keep pace with the rest of the industry.

Availability of Third-Party Software. Certainly not every user can have the luxury of developing dedicated software, particularly beyond the development of symbol libraries and menus. Therefore, before selecting a CAD system, the user should determine how much application software is available from the vendor or from third parties. For piping layout, the most important applications to look for are those intended for generating orthographic piping drawings and piping isometric drawings. Application software, speciﬁc to piping layout, can signiﬁcantly increase the productivity of the application of CAD. If little or no applications software exists for the CAD system under consideration, then the user will likely have to develop his or her own applications software or fail to realize the full value of the CAD system.

Support of User-Developed Software. In cases where no applications software exists, perhaps due to the uniqueness of the user requirements, the user needs to ensure that application software can be developed for the speciﬁc CAD system. As a minimum, the system should support developing simple ‘‘macro’’ commands which execute a series of commands in response to a single command. Many systems have macro languages which offer much of the functionality of general-purpose programming languages. For more sophisticated applications, the system should provide interfaces to software written in other programming languages, such as Fortran or C++.

Support for Multiple Users. Piping layout is not done in isolation and must inter-face design information and drawings from other piping designers as well as other disciplines. Therefore, the CAD system must support this type of activity. The CAD system should provide the capability for a designer to have read-only access to the CAD ﬁles of other designers for reference, interference checking, or use as background information for the piping drawings. Systems which have this capability often refer to it as a reference ﬁle capability. This allows one designer to see the ﬁle of another designer, as if it were part of his or her ﬁle; however, the data cannot be changed. For personal-computer-based CAD systems, this requires that they be part of some type of local or wide-area network. Without this capability in the CAD software or for personal computers which are not in a network, the data from other designers must be copied and incorporated into the designer’s ﬁle. This doesn't allow the designer to see the active data of other designers. In addition, it also greatly increases the storage requirements since many drawings are duplicated,perhaps numerous times. Most importantly, this introduces a more complicated ﬁle management problem, making it more difﬁcult to (1) know which ﬁle has the most up-to-date information and (2) ensure that everyone references the current data.

Database Capabilities. To utilize the CAD system for more than just drafting requires that the system have the ability to create drawings which, in addition to the drawing graphics, contain (or reference in database) other information which can be extracted from the drawing, such as valve numbers and/or line numbers. With this type of capability, bills of material can be generated automatically from the piping drawings. It is even possible to generate the input to the piping stress analysis program from a piping isometric. However, note that merely having a basic database capability does not mean that it can be effectively used for extracting data from piping drawings. This is the role of applications software developed speciﬁcally for piping which automatically generates and manages this information during the creation of the drawing. In the absence of piping applications software, the designer would be required to key in a signiﬁcant amount of data while generating the drawing. This not only dramatically decreases the productivity of the drawing production process, but also greatly increases the possibility of errors.

Training and Implementation. In the past, much of the cost of implementing the traditional turnkey CAD systems was in the hardware and software. Today, as the cost of hardware and software continues to decline, the majority of the cost is shifting from hardware and software toward training and support. Therefore, the costs associated with the training and implementation of a CAD system, even for two-dimensional drafting, should not be underestimated. In fact, experience has shown that the relative effectiveness of a CAD system is directly related to the amount of training and support the individual users receive.

The precise method of implementing a CAD system is dependent on the com-pany’s current organization and method of executing work. Centralized CAD groups working multiple shifts were often the norm with the installation of the large turn key systems. Now, however, as the cost continues to decrease and the piping design industry in general increases its sophistication in the use of CAD, more effective uses of CAD are being made by placing the workstations right in the piping design groups. Many companies started by training their drafting personnel. But again,experience has shown that even more effective use can be made of the CAD system by training senior-level piping designers. Instead of creating sketches which are then passed on to a drafter, the designer, using the CAD system and piping layout applications software, can create an electronic sketch which is very nearly a ﬁnished drawing, leaving very little to do in the way of drafting. This approach can greatly increase the productivity of the whole design and drafting cycle.

Computer-Aided Design

While the use of CAD for two-dimensional drafting in support of piping layout can provide a number of productivity beneﬁts, there are inherent limitations as to overall beneﬁts to the entire design, fabrication, and construction cycle. While providing beneﬁts in producing the piping drawings (e.g., drafting quality, drafting productivity) and possibly in generating bills of materials, it offers little in the way of improving design productivity. Also, the cost and effort required for interference detection are only marginally improved. Thus two-dimensional drafting, while improving drafting quality and productivity, does little for improving design qualityand productivity.

The use of three-dimensional (3D) modeling offers a signiﬁcant step forward in improving piping design productivity and quality. Systems for 3D piping modeling have existed since the 1970s in a variety of forms. The early systems were geared primarily toward interference detection and materials management and really were not used as design tools per se. Today, a number of systems exist which address the entire piping design cycle. In selecting one of these systems, all the issues which applied to computer-aided drafting apply to 3D piping design systems. However, there are a number of other issues which must also be considered.

Interactive Design. To truly improve piping design productivity, the software should provide the capability to interactively lay out the piping systems directly in the 3D computer model. This allows the piping designer to sit at the graphics workstation, viewing the 3D model, and directly add new piping or modify existing piping. Without this capability, the system can provide other bene��ts, such as in interference detection, but will not necessarily improve the piping design productivity. In fact, without interactive design capabilities, another step is added to the process for entering the data into the 3D model from the 2D design drawings.Many CAD systems provide interactive 3D modeling capabilities, but these are not usually sufﬁcient for 3D piping design. Applications software, speciﬁcally aimed at piping design, is required to realize gains in design productivity. Without this type of applications software, 3D modeling is probably only effective for early conceptual design and perhaps detailed modeling of very speciﬁc problem areas.

Interference Detection. A major advantage of using 3D computer modeling for piping layout is the ability to automatically check for interferences. This alone can provide a signiﬁcant improvement in design quality by making it possible to issue a ‘‘provable’’ design, i.e., an interference-free design. Many CAD systems, particularly those originally developed for mechanical design, can detect interferences between two 3D objects; but this is not sufﬁcient for checking plant models for interferences in a production environment. As a minimum, the software should provide the following capabilities:

The software should be able to check interferences for all or part of the plant in a batch mode. This check should include not only piping but all other disciplines as well. The software should have a method of reporting interferences which is easy to interpret and makes it possible to quickly locate the interferences in a large and complex model. Some systems also offer the capability to check for interferences as the piping is being designed. This is especially useful for designing pipe in very congested areas.

The software should check for not only ‘‘hard’’ interferences, i.e., metal-to-metal, but also ‘‘soft’’ interferences, such as personnel access areas, equipment removal spaces, insulation, and construction access.

The software should provide some capability for managing interference resolution over the life of the project. This includes the ability to suppress certain types of interferences and ﬂagging certain speciﬁc interferences as acceptable which will not be reported in the future.

Drawing Generation. To fully realize the beneﬁts of 3D modeling, the system should provide the capability to automatically or semi-automatically produce the piping drawings, both orthographic and isometric, directly from the 3D piping model. These drawings should be generated in the form of 2D CAD drawings so that they can be managed along with the 2D drawings not generated from the 3D model. For orthographic drawings, the system should be able to represent the piping in the format required by the user, e.g., single-line; it should be able to automatically remove hidden lines from the model; and it should have some basic capability to automatically place annotation, such as component call outs, into the drawing. For piping isometrics, it is not unreasonable to expect the software to generate the piping isometric automatically.

Bills of Material. As a minimum, the software should have the capability to produce a bill of materials for any of the components included in the model. If a user requires stringent control of piping materials, the system should also provide a piping materials control system or an interface to a third-party materials control system.

Interface to Other Systems. Since many disciplines utilize 3D geometry data, the software should have the ability to interface the 3D geometry data with other computer systems. For piping design, this would include the piping stress analysis systems. This could also include interfaces to fabrication equipment, such as numerically controlled pipe-bending systems.

Design Review. The use of 3D modeling for piping design impacts the design process in a number of ways. First, the design evolves in the 3D model—not on the drawings, as in the case of 2D design. The drawings are not usually produced until the design is completed. This means that the drawings cannot be used as a means of reviewing the design while the design is in progress. Second, since in some companies the use of 3D design has virtually eliminated the plastic model, the plastic model is also no longer available as a design review tool. Thus the 3D software system should provide, either directly or through an interface, the means of reviewing the 3D computer model on a high-performance graphics terminal. These types of systems provide the capability to ‘‘walk through’’ solid shaded models in real time for the purposes of design review.

Training and Implementation. Once again, the issues related to computer-aided drafting apply here as well. The primary difference is one of degree. Systems for 3D computer modeling of piping require more training, more support, and a longer learning curve. Also, these types of systems are more pervasive than simple 2D CAD drafting in that they require a higher level of integration between disciplines and departments and thus a higher level of management attention and support. For these systems to be effective, it is imperative that senior-level design personnel are trained in the use of the system and can use it effectively for piping layout.

Conclusion

Computer-aided drafting and computer-aided design have been used effectively and productively for piping design for a number of years. One of the most important lessons learned from the application of CAD to piping layout, particularly the use of 3D modeling, is that design ﬁrms are no longer tied to the same design process and design documentation as when the design was performed manually. The use of 3D piping design provides a number of opportunities for improving the way in which plant design is performed, over and above simply the increase in design productivity. In fact, experience has shown that force-ﬁtting 3D piping design into a project organization and design process geared to manual design actually leads to some inefﬁciencies.

There appear to be several factors which are important to the continued effective application of this technology. Perhaps most important is the fact that being able to effectively apply this type of software requires training—not only for the individual designers and engineers but also for the supervisors, project engineers, and project managers who control the project work. This type of software opens up new possibilities for improving the way project work is performed, but being able to take advantage of these requires that people at all levels of the project understand the software capabilities as well as its limitations.

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condensed-theorem-shop · 8 years ago

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A recent article devoted to the macho side of programming made the bald and unvarnished statement: Real Programmers write in FORTRAN. Maybe they do now, in this decadent era of Lite beer, hand calculators, and “user-friendly” software but back in the Good Old Days, when the term “software” sounded funny and Real Computers were made out of drums and vacuum tubes, Real Programmers wrote in machine code. Not FORTRAN. Not RATFOR. Not, even, assembly language. Machine Code. Raw, unadorned, inscrutable hexadecimal numbers. Directly. Lest a whole new generation of programmers grow up in ignorance of this glorious past, I feel duty-bound to describe, as best I can through the generation gap, how a Real Programmer wrote code. I'll call him Mel, because that was his name. I first met Mel when I went to work for Royal McBee Computer Corp., a now-defunct subsidiary of the typewriter company. The firm manufactured the LGP-30, a small, cheap (by the standards of the day) drum-memory computer, and had just started to manufacture the RPC-4000, a much-improved, bigger, better, faster — drum-memory computer. Cores cost too much, and weren't here to stay, anyway. (That's why you haven't heard of the company, or the computer.) I had been hired to write a FORTRAN compiler for this new marvel and Mel was my guide to its wonders. Mel didn't approve of compilers. “If a program can't rewrite its own code”, he asked, “what good is it?” Mel had written, in hexadecimal, the most popular computer program the company owned. It ran on the LGP-30 and played blackjack with potential customers at computer shows. Its effect was always dramatic. The LGP-30 booth was packed at every show, and the IBM salesmen stood around talking to each other. Whether or not this actually sold computers was a question we never discussed. Mel's job was to re-write the blackjack program for the RPC-4000. (Port? What does that mean?) The new computer had a one-plus-one addressing scheme, in which each machine instruction, in addition to the operation code and the address of the needed operand, had a second address that indicated where, on the revolving drum, the next instruction was located. In modern parlance, every single instruction was followed by a GO TO! Put that in Pascal's pipe and smoke it. Mel loved the RPC-4000 because he could optimize his code: that is, locate instructions on the drum so that just as one finished its job, the next would be just arriving at the “read head” and available for immediate execution. There was a program to do that job, an “optimizing assembler”, but Mel refused to use it. “You never know where it's going to put things”, he explained, “so you'd have to use separate constants”. It was a long time before I understood that remark. Since Mel knew the numerical value of every operation code, and assigned his own drum addresses, every instruction he wrote could also be considered a numerical constant. He could pick up an earlier “add” instruction, say, and multiply by it, if it had the right numeric value. His code was not easy for someone else to modify. I compared Mel's hand-optimized programs with the same code massaged by the optimizing assembler program, and Mel's always ran faster. That was because the “top-down” method of program design hadn't been invented yet, and Mel wouldn't have used it anyway. He wrote the innermost parts of his program loops first, so they would get first choice of the optimum address locations on the drum. The optimizing assembler wasn't smart enough to do it that way. Mel never wrote time-delay loops, either, even when the balky Flexowriter required a delay between output characters to work right. He just located instructions on the drum so each successive one was just past the read head when it was needed; the drum had to execute another complete revolution to find the next instruction. He coined an unforgettable term for this procedure. Although “optimum” is an absolute term, like “unique”, it became common verbal practice to make it relative: “not quite optimum” or “less optimum” or “not very optimum”. Mel called the maximum time-delay locations the “most pessimum”. After he finished the blackjack program and got it to run (“Even the initializer is optimized”, he said proudly), he got a Change Request from the sales department. The program used an elegant (optimized) random number generator to shuffle the “cards” and deal from the “deck”, and some of the salesmen felt it was too fair, since sometimes the customers lost. They wanted Mel to modify the program so, at the setting of a sense switch on the console, they could change the odds and let the customer win. Mel balked. He felt this was patently dishonest, which it was, and that it impinged on his personal integrity as a programmer, which it did, so he refused to do it. The Head Salesman talked to Mel, as did the Big Boss and, at the boss's urging, a few Fellow Programmers. Mel finally gave in and wrote the code, but he got the test backwards, and, when the sense switch was turned on, the program would cheat, winning every time. Mel was delighted with this, claiming his subconscious was uncontrollably ethical, and adamantly refused to fix it. After Mel had left the company for greener pa$ture$, the Big Boss asked me to look at the code and see if I could find the test and reverse it. Somewhat reluctantly, I agreed to look. Tracking Mel's code was a real adventure. I have often felt that programming is an art form, whose real value can only be appreciated by another versed in the same arcane art; there are lovely gems and brilliant coups hidden from human view and admiration, sometimes forever, by the very nature of the process. You can learn a lot about an individual just by reading through his code, even in hexadecimal. Mel was, I think, an unsung genius. Perhaps my greatest shock came when I found an innocent loop that had no test in it. No test. None. Common sense said it had to be a closed loop, where the program would circle, forever, endlessly. Program control passed right through it, however, and safely out the other side. It took me two weeks to figure it out. The RPC-4000 computer had a really modern facility called an index register. It allowed the programmer to write a program loop that used an indexed instruction inside; each time through, the number in the index register was added to the address of that instruction, so it would refer to the next datum in a series. He had only to increment the index register each time through. Mel never used it. Instead, he would pull the instruction into a machine register, add one to its address, and store it back. He would then execute the modified instruction right from the register. The loop was written so this additional execution time was taken into account — just as this instruction finished, the next one was right under the drum's read head, ready to go. But the loop had no test in it. The vital clue came when I noticed the index register bit, the bit that lay between the address and the operation code in the instruction word, was turned on — yet Mel never used the index register, leaving it zero all the time. When the light went on it nearly blinded me. He had located the data he was working on near the top of memory — the largest locations the instructions could address — so, after the last datum was handled, incrementing the instruction address would make it overflow. The carry would add one to the operation code, changing it to the next one in the instruction set: a jump instruction. Sure enough, the next program instruction was in address location zero, and the program went happily on its way. I haven't kept in touch with Mel, so I don't know if he ever gave in to the flood of change that has washed over programming techniques since those long-gone days. I like to think he didn't. In any event, I was impressed enough that I quit looking for the offending test, telling the Big Boss I couldn't find it. He didn't seem surprised. When I left the company, the blackjack program would still cheat if you turned on the right sense switch, and I think that's how it should be. I didn't feel comfortable hacking up the code of a Real Programmer.

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becbec-reviewsfilms · 8 years ago

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‘Hidden Figures’

★★★★★

2016 – Dir. Theodore Melfi

Hollywood is well-known for its lack of diversity in films, and ‘Hidden Figures’ may have been looked down upon for its primary cast being black women. However, the film stunned viewers and critics,band outdid many of its competitors, firmly placing it as one of the best films of 2016. Its subject content is just as relevant today as it was years ago, and it sensitively handles the social issues of that time and how many boundaries were pushed and broken in order to achieve social change. Taraji P.Henson, Octavia Spencer, and Janelle Monae deliver stupendous performances to bring this true story to life on the screen, surrounded by an outstanding supporting cast.

‘Hidden Figures’ follows three African-American female mathematicians working at NASA during the Space Race, and their impact on launching astronaut John Glenn into space. All three work as ‘computers’, performing hundreds of calculations each day while faced with inequality in a society that claims to give equal rights. Katherine’s temporary promotion to the Space Task Force, Mary’s re-assignment to engineering, and Dorothy’s persistence in ensuring their future at NASA help to push forward the Space Race and achieve the impossible. Each of their journeys is very different, but each is just as meaningful and powerful in the overarching story.

The relationship between the three leading women feels very natural and the actresses work extremely well with each other. Taraji P.Henson’s Katherine Johnson is grounded in reality – a welcome change from a stereotype that intelligent people have little social skills or meaningful stories beyond that of their academic work. Katherine’s journey in the movie from just another computer to an essential part of the Space Program is not an easy path, but her rise in status is coupled with her blossoming relationship with Jim Johnson (Mahershala Ali). The chemistry between the two actors is perhaps not so evident at first but it is a subtle and sweet relationship that comes together. The scene in which the two first dance feels intimate yet caring, and shows that there is a softer chemistry between the actors. A true stand out moment for Taraji P. Henson is when Katherine is outraged at the inequality at NASA which means she has to make a mile round trip just to use the bathroom. Drenched, cold, and angry, she makes a stand to her boss who all but accuses her of being negligent of her job. It is one of many powerful scenes, but perhaps the most powerful because it is when others truly begin to understand the discrimination she and others face. It is immediately followed by Harrison (Kevin Costner) destroying the ‘Coloured Bathroom’ sign. The two separate groups stood on either side of the hallway facing each other highlight the great divide between white and black – and yet it is a divide finally being breached as Harrison destroys just one of the many barriers between them.

Contrastingly, Octavia Spencer’s Dorothy Vaughan takes a more subtle approach to her handling of the inequality of the world, coyly teaching herself and ‘her girls’ FORTRAN so they can program the new IBM machines. She is by no means timid, but realises that not all problems can be tackled head on and finds her own way around the barriers in place. Her sensitive support of both Katherine and Mary is instrumental in their success, yet I feel the movie slightly pushes her aside in favour of the younger Katherine and Mary. Dorothy Vaughan has been working at NASA for 10 years when the movie starts – something which should not be overlooked at all. Indeed, she is a powerful character, and this is wonderfully shown when she leads her girls away from the confines of the West Computing Room. The image of this large group of smart, intelligent, black women marching with pride through NASA feels just as relevant today as it was then, and the rising soundtrack in the background simply completes this moment of victory.

It is the small victories that count in this story, as Janelle Monae brings Mary Jackson’s struggle to be an engineer to life. Being the youngest of the three friends, Mary ultimately has that extreme spark, that extra bit of fight in her, and it is this that pushes her towards truly achieving her dream of being an engineer. Her speech to the judge is relevant throughout the entire movie – the idea of being first. The prevailing view of this is the Space Race, being the first in space, the first to land on the moon, the first everything. But by breaking it down into smaller pieces, it is about the civil rights movements at the time as well. The first to attend an all-white school, the first to have a degree, the first to hold a position of power. Monae brings a youthful energy to Mary Jackson, a spice of optimism that could easily be lost in the dark, dreary world, but which grows ever stronger as equality does.

What really makes this movie work, however, is the little moments that hold as much importance as the big ones. The ‘coloured’ coffee pot, the difference between the standards of the West and East Computing rooms, being unable to borrow a book from the library. It is these mundane moments that really let the story and actors shine through. For instance, we do not see much of Katherine and her children, but in the few short scenes they feature in we can see that there is a loving and caring relationship between them which really has an impact. It is also important that as the movie moves on, these mundane moments change for the better. The relationship between Katherine and her co-workers improves to the point that, at the end of the movie, her rival Paul Stafford (Jim Parsons) is bringing her coffee. It is a small exchange, but the implication of it is so important. No longer is she an ‘underdog’ or a ‘nuisance’, but an equal, and she is finally treated as one.

It is so easy to talk about what was good in this movie that it is hard to find anything that is bad. I certainly struggled to pick on anything major that was problematic for the movie. Whilst I think they built the relationship between Katherine and Jim well, I feel that it was perhaps slightly rushed because they had so much story to fit into one movie. However, the scenes they did use worked extremely well with the story as a whole, mainly used as moments of happiness that were suddenly contrasted by another step backwards. In addition, there was a small sub-plot where Mary Jackson’s husband had more radical views after being inspired by Martin Luther King Jr, and this is resolved rather too quickly by the end of the movie. Aside from that, these are only small nit-picks for a movie that was relatively tightly plotted and had compelling characters that could be related to by anyone.

Hidden Figures is a movie about breaking boundaries, about pushing the rules and fighting for what is right, even if it is only a small victories. Whilst there are many big victories in the film, it is the small victories that count the most and that evoke the most emotion in those watching. The soundtrack is soft and emotional, perfectly reflecting the character’s emotions throughout. It certainly deserves every bit of praise it gets and more. I’m so glad that Hidden Figures did so well because it means that more films like this, featuring more diverse casts and more relevant storytelling, will hopefully be fruitful and successful in the future and beyond.

I laughed, I cried, I cheered. Hidden Figures firmly deserves full marks for its sheer brilliance and sensitive tackling of relevant issues – both then and now.

Some other brilliant moments that wouldn’t fit:

When the police cruiser pulls up alongside their broken down car and all three are already stood beside it, IDs ready for inspection to ensure that the officer knows they are not causing trouble. To me, it is so reflective of the current situation where police are openly discriminating against black people, and it is so relevant in today’s society – much more than it should be.

The cinematography on the Russians as they make their first launch into space. It’s dark and mysterious, perfectly conveying the possible threat the American’s believed they posed to their country and safety.

John Glenn (Glen Powell) makes sure to greet everyone when he first arrives at NASA. It seems like such a small gesture but it has a large impact in showing the social divide between the two computer groups and the black women in general. Indeed, it is evident in almost every scene when Katherine works in the Space Task Group – she is the only black women in a room filled with white men.

There is a parallel when the assistant runs from the control centre over to the West Computing room to have Katherine check the numbers. It is a route that Katherine has run many times in order to use the bathroom, and yet it is now paralleled by one man running it to fetch her to save the launch. Subtle, but powerful, it is an important scene.

Finally, when Dorothy turns off the lights in the West Computing room for what seems like the last time, it is entirely symbolic that the divide between white and black is coming to a close. It is the small, subtle moments that make this movie, and this is certainly one of them.

#hidden figures #film review #becbec reviews films #five stars #taraji p henson #octavia spencer #janelle monae #hidden figures film

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blogbridge182 · 4 years ago

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Programming Languages

It is the core language of the Poplog programming environment developed originally by the University of Sussex, and recently in the School of Computer Science at the University of Birmingham which hosts the Poplog website, It is often used to introduce symbolic programming techniques to programmers of more conventional languages like Pascal. The aim of this list of programming languages is to include all notable programming languages in existence, both those in current use and historical ones, in alphabetical order. Dialects of BASIC, esoteric programming languages, and markup languages are not included.

Programming Languages Definition

Types Of Programming Languages

Top 20 Computer Programming Languages

Article

Language types

Algorithmic languages

Business-oriented languages

Education-oriented languages

Object-oriented languages

Document formatting languages

World Wide Web display languages

Elements of programming

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Professor Emeritus, Department of Computer Science, Union College, Schenectady, New York. Coeditor of Encyclopedia of Computer Science, 4th ed. (2000).

Computer programming language, any of various languages for expressing a set of detailed instructions for a digital computer. Such instructions can be executed directly when they are in the computer manufacturer-specific numerical form known as machine language, after a simple substitution process when expressed in a corresponding assembly language, or after translation from some “higher-level” language. Although there are many computer languages, relatively few are widely used.

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Computers host websites composed of HTML and send text messages as simple as..LOL. Hack into this quiz and let some technology tally your score and reveal the contents to you.

Machine and assembly languages are “low-level,” requiring a programmer to manage explicitly all of a computer’s idiosyncratic features of data storage and operation. In contrast, high-level languages shield a programmer from worrying about such considerations and provide a notation that is more easily written and read by programmers.

Language types

Machine and assembly languages

A machine language consists of the numeric codes for the operations that a particular computer can execute directly. The codes are strings of 0s and 1s, or binary digits (“bits”), which are frequently converted both from and to hexadecimal (base 16) for human viewing and modification. Machine language instructions typically use some bits to represent operations, such as addition, and some to represent operands, or perhaps the location of the next instruction. Machine language is difficult to read and write, since it does not resemble conventional mathematical notation or human language, and its codes vary from computer to computer.

Assembly language is one level above machine language. It uses short mnemonic codes for instructions and allows the programmer to introduce names for blocks of memory that hold data. One might thus write “add pay, total” instead of “0110101100101000” for an instruction that adds two numbers.

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Assembly language is designed to be easily translated into machine language. Although blocks of data may be referred to by name instead of by their machine addresses, assembly language does not provide more sophisticated means of organizing complex information. Like machine language, assembly language requires detailed knowledge of internal computer architecture. It is useful when such details are important, as in programming a computer to interact with peripheral devices (printers, scanners, storage devices, and so forth).

Algorithmic languages

Algorithmic languages are designed to express mathematical or symbolic computations. They can express algebraic operations in notation similar to mathematics and allow the use of subprograms that package commonly used operations for reuse. They were the first high-level languages.

Programming Languages Definition

FORTRAN

The first important algorithmic language was FORTRAN (formula translation), designed in 1957 by an IBM team led by John Backus. It was intended for scientific computations with real numbers and collections of them organized as one- or multidimensional arrays. Its control structures included conditional IF statements, repetitive loops (so-called DO loops), and a GOTO statement that allowed nonsequential execution of program code. FORTRAN made it convenient to have subprograms for common mathematical operations, and built libraries of them.

FORTRAN was also designed to translate into efficient machine language. It was immediately successful and continues to evolve.

ALGOL

ALGOL (algorithmic l https://blogbridge182.tumblr.com/post/653002829657669632/keepassxc-firefox. anguage) was designed by a committee of American and European computer scientists during 1958–60 for publishing algorithms, as well as for doing computations. Like LISP (described in the next section), ALGOL had recursive subprograms—procedures that could invoke themselves to solve a problem by reducing it to a smaller problem of the same kind. ALGOL introduced block structure, in which a program is composed of blocks that might contain both data and instructions and have the same structure as an entire program. Block structure became a powerful tool for building large programs out of small components.

ALGOL contributed a notation for describing the structure of a programming language, Backus–Naur Form, which in some variation became the standard tool for stating the syntax (grammar) of programming languages. ALGOL was widely used in Europe, and for many years it remained the language in which computer algorithms were published. Many important languages, such as Pascal and Ada (both described later), are its descendants.

The C programming language was developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan at the AT&T Corporation for programming computer operating systems. Its capacity to structure data and programs through the composition of smaller units is comparable to that of ALGOL. It uses a compact notation and provides the programmer with the ability to operate with the addresses of data as well as with their values. This ability is important in systems programming, and C shares with assembly language the power to exploit all the features of a computer’s internal architecture. C, along with its descendant C++, remains one of the most common languages.

Business-oriented languages

COBOL

COBOL (common business oriented language) has been heavily used by businesses since its inception in 1959. A committee of computer manufacturers and users and U.S. government organizations established CODASYL (Committee on Data Systems and Languages) to develop and oversee the language standard in order to ensure its portability across diverse systems.

COBOL uses an English-like notation—novel when introduced. Business computations organize and manipulate large quantities of data, and COBOL introduced the recorddata structure for such tasks. A record clusters heterogeneous data—such as a name, an ID number, an age, and an address—into a single unit. This contrasts with scientific languages, in which homogeneous arrays of numbers are common. Records are an important example of “chunking” data into a single object, and they appear in nearly all modern languages.

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