“The Field of the Cloth of Gold”
On the 7th of June 1520, the sensational meeting of Kings of England and France occurred near Calais that was to become known to history as “The Field of the Cloth of Gold”. This luxurious meeting became the standards to which international peace treaties were measured in many years to come. There was the long history of tensions and rivalries between England and France, which the meeting was intended to put an end to.
King Henry VIII and his first wife, Queen Catherine of Aragon, arrived in Calais on the 31st of May. Henry should have reached the English stronghold of Guînes on the same day, but instead he dispatched a page to the French ruler that the ladies of his large retinue of about 5,000 people were exhausted after the journey across the English Channel and needed a few days of rest. King François I did not object to the delay, but he nevertheless warned Henry to be at the meeting place on the planned day in time.
While the Tudor court rested for four days in Calais, King François and, his first wife, Queen Claude of France, together their huge train, were in the French town of Ardres. Accompanied by his own train of a hundred gentlemen clad in crimson velvet, Cardinal Wolsey paid a visit to François. The cardinal loved pomp and rode a mule with harnessing of fine gold and trappings of crimson velvet when he was met by French courtiers at Ardres. François hosted a banquet in Wolsey’s honor, and one would like to know what they discussed; there was gossip that the cardinal proposed to mediate between François and Charles V, who was only fifty or sixty miles away from Calais in Flanders at that time.
On the 5th of June 6, the French and English pitched their tents (approximately 2000!) near the field. However, there were last minute difficulties: Henry learned that the French had stationed between 3,000 and 4,000 soldiers nearby, so the summit was almost called off, but François prudently withdrew the troops. Most likely, memories of The Hundred Years’ War were still fresh in the minds of the French, so they resolved to try and defend the Valois family in case the English attacked.
A French historical account describes François I’s magnificence as he left Ardens.
“The King wore a cap of black velvet with feathers of the same color, and some large jewels in it very well set, which the King estimates at 2,000 ducats. His doublet was embroidered with gold knots, the shirt protruding from the slashes, the tags of which were most beautiful jewels. His breast was bare, and he had sleeves (manegetti). Over the doublet was a cloak of cloth of gold embroidered; at the back of the cloak a certain bit of cloth of gold slashed, looking like a half cape, or well nigh a half mantle, fastened over the left shoulder, which half cape or mantle was costly and ornamented with large jewels. On his legs, he wore white boots (burzachini bianchi).”
This description does not mean that the Valois monarch did not wear a shirt at all. The phrase “his breast was bare” refers to a relative lack of jewels adorning that part of his clothes. Perhaps the king’s doublet was less lavishly embroidered on the front than on the sleeves.
An English contemporary account describes Henry VIII’s splendid appearance:
“The King of England wore a very handsome and costly doublet of cloth of silver, with a girdle and apron (traversa) or “sbarra” from the cincture to the shoulder, of cloth of gold studded with very beautiful jewels, and a black velvet cap with jewels and black feathers; and he rode a very handsome bay courser with a “trapper” embroidered in gold.”
The meeting continued until the 24th of June. As Jean du Bellay reported in his papers, the two sovereigns decided to pass their time “en déduit et choses de plaisir” (in other words, in entertainments and pleasures), leaving negotiations to their councilors. For nearly two weeks, it was a mind-blowing and most eccentric display of riches and extravagance, which included, for example, “a forest of exotic pavilions” to house the English Court, “a wooden and canvas palace” to act as the King’s Chamber, as well as “two wine fountains flowing with red wine”. Every day, François and Henry were appareled in their most fabulous clothes as they did their best to outshine each other; their courtiers dressed in “velvet, satin and cloth of gold”. Those days were full of unprecedented festivities and merry jousts, lots of music and various games, as well as entertainments such as archery displays and wrestling between Breton and Cornish wrestlers. There were feasts in which the rulers entertained each other’s queens, as if swapping queens for an evening and allowing them to act as a hostess. On the summit, there was so much cloth of gold displayed on the tents and clothes that the site of the meeting was named after it.
The rest of the meeting, including the wrestling match between François and Henry, will be covered in another article next week.
All images are in the public domain.
Text © 2019 Olivia Longueville
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Death of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Duke of Brittany
On this day in history in 1186, Geoffrey Plantagenet died in Paris. He was the fourth of five sons born to Henry II, King of England, and Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine. He died unexpectedly at the age of 27, in the prime of his life. There is also evidence that he might have died on the 21st of August, 1186.
Geoffrey is one of the forgotten Angevin royals: he is rarely the focus of historians because he died young and was the only son of Henry and Eleanor who survived to adulthood, yet never wore a crown. In Angevin history, he has been called “a duke among kings.”
He was born at Beaumont Palace, Oxford. In her biography of Eleanor of Aquitaine, Marion Meade wrote of his birth:
“On September 23, 1158, without fuss or fanfare and almost seeming to be an afterthought, she [Eleanor] gave birth to another son, Geoffrey.”
Geoffrey’s Personality
There are no portraits of Geoffrey Plantagenet at any age known to exist. According to contemporary chronicles, Geoffrey was dark-haired and short of stature; he had an average appearance and was not considered good-looking, charming, or charismatic. He was probably the most intelligent son of Eleanor and Henry, but he used his talents for selfish schemes.
Geoffrey in the movie “Lion in the Winter”
It’s likely that the young Geoffrey was often overshadowed by the towering personalities which dominated the royal family. His father ruled vast lands and was one of the wealthiest and most successful kings of his time. His mother had been Queen of France before becoming Queen of England, and through the strength and determination of her personality, she maintained control over the vast, prosperous, and strategic Duchy of Aquitaine. Geoffrey’s two older brothers were the ambitious Henry the Younger and the man who would become famous as Richard the Lionheart.
Participation in “The Great Revolt of 1173-74”
These internal family tensions and ambitions led to what is today called, “The Great Revolt of 1173-74.”
Events in Normandy, summer 1173
At the age of fifteen, Geoffrey found himself swept up in this revolt against his father, although it is doubtful that he played any significant role in the events of the time. Eventually, Geoffrey and his brothers reconciled to Henry, and a truce was reached at Gisors in 1174. Unfortunately, this uneasy peace within the Plantagenet royal family was not destined to last.
Duke of Brittany
In July 1181, Geoffrey became the Duke of Brittany and Earl of Richmond upon his marriage to Constance, Duchess of Brittany. It was a marriage that had been carefully orchestrated by Henry II.
Constance, Duchess of Brittany
Years earlier, Henry had helped Conan IV, Duke of Brittany put down an uprising. Duke Conan might have assumed that Henry was helping him maintain control over the Duchy of Brittany, but Henry’s motives were much more mercenary: Henry decided that Brittany’s location on the western border of Normandy made it a desirable addition to his expansive kingdom.
After putting down the revolt in Brittany, Henry forced Conan to abdicate his title to his five year old daughter, Constance, and then he betrothed the little duchess to eight year old Geoffrey. According to Everard, Henry needed Conan’s abdication to prevent any son of the duke from inheriting the duchy in the future.
Geoffrey Plantagenet and his wife, Constance, had three children:
Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany, (1184–1241);
Maud/Matilda of Brittany (died in May 1189);
Arthur I, Duke of Brittany (he was born in 1187, after Geoffrey’s death, and was presumably killed in 1203 by his uncle, John I of England).
Another Revolt
By 1182, Plantagenet family tensions were once again reaching a boiling point.
Henry the Young King grew increasingly frustrated that his coronation had brought him relatively little wealth and no real power. Meanwhile, Richard ruled Aquitaine, where disgruntled nobles were able to exploit the tensions between the three brothers. Geoffrey joined Henry the Young King and threatened Richard. King Henry was required to intervene in an attempt to cool the tempers of his fractious brood.
Revolt against Henry II
It is the resolution of this second revolt where historians get their first glimpse of Geoffrey’s nature and temperament. Henry II and his sons all met in Anjou, at Mirabel, and the three sons took oaths that they would be obedient to the rightful King of England, their father, and would not rebel again.
Soon after taking this oath, Henry the Young King contracted dysentery in June 1183 and died in the Castle of Martel, near Limoges.
Following this second revolt, we get our first glimpse into the nature and personality of Geoffrey from a chronicler of the time, Roger of Hoveden:
“But the said Geoffrey, utterly forgetful of God and of respect for his father, and unmindful of his commands, did not bring peace, but the sword, and, slighting his oath, his homage, and the fealty which he had so often sworn to his father, entered into a compact with the enemies of his father, for the purpose of harassing him, and induced a sacrilegious race, and one detested by the Church of Rome, to ravage the territories of his father.”
Geoffrey allied himself with John Lackland, his youngest brother, against Richard. Later he joined with young Philippe Augustus, the King of France, against both his father and Richard. In response, Henry II made increasingly violent assaults upon any castle or fiefdom allied with Geoffrey, and, eventually, Henry and Richard captured all the rebellious castles, some of which they razed to the ground.
According to contemporary sources, Geoffrey didn’t have Richard’s great military talent, but he was a ruthless warrior who was capable of terrifying acts of violence. He was best known for his propensity to do anything to get his way. If he needed to raise funds for his campaigns, he attacked and robbed monasteries and abbeys, and it was this lack of reverence that earned him the displeasure of the Church.
Historians about Geoffrey
Roger of Hoveden called Geoffrey ‘that son of iniquity and perdition.’ In her book “Eleanor of Aquitaine: By the Wrath of God, Queen of England,” Alison Weir writes:
“Geoffrey’s life would be that of an ambitious and opportunistic robber baron. Ruthless in warfare, he plundered at will, not hesitating to sack abbeys and shrines. He had few scruples, and confronted his critics with devious and shameless excuses.”
Geoffrey with his mother, Eleanor, in the movie “Lion in the Winter”
In his biography of Henry II of England, Richard Barber says:
“Geoffrey, though skilled in military affairs, eloquent and astute, never won men’s hearts or admiration as his elder brothers had done; he took after his Angevin grandfather, in whose dry and ambitious nature these three qualities predominated.”
Geoffrey Plantagenet was a good friend of Philippe Augustus, the son of King Louis VII of France. He spent time at the French court in Paris, and Philippe even made him his seneschal (a royal steward overseeing the entire country), much to the displeasure of the English monarch. Philippe and Geoffrey acted in alliance against Henry II in the revolt of 1183-1184. Some evidence supports the claim that the two men were planning another rebellion against Henry II in the summer of 1186, but Geoffrey’s sudden death precluded them from launching it.
Having conspired sometimes with and sometimes against his elder brothers and his father, Geoffrey Plantagenet, Duke of Brittany, acquired a reputation for treachery and perdition.
A Cambro-Norman archdeacon of Brecon and historian, Gerald of Wales was a royal clerk to the king and two archbishops. He often traveled and wrote detailed chronicles. He wrote the following of Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany:
“He has more aloes than honey in him; his tongue is smoother than oil; his sweet and persuasive eloquence has enabled him to dissolve the firmest alliances and by his powers of language able to corrupt two kingdoms; of tireless endeavour, a hypocrite in everything, a deceiver and a dissembler.”
Death in Paris
At the time of his death, Geoffrey Plantagenet was at the French court. There are two alternative accounts of his death. The most popular version is that the Duke of Brittany was trampled to death in a jousting tournament. According to Roger of Hoveden, Philip was so grief-stricken and devastated that he attempted jumping into the coffin – this is likely an exaggeration, although other chronicles also give some details of Philip’s hysterical grief.
Geoffrey’s tombstone
According to the chronicle of the French Royal clerk Rigord, Geoffrey died of sudden acute chest pain in his chest, which was said to be his punishment for plotting against his father and for his lack of respect to the Lord. In this chronicle, it is said that Geoffrey was struck by that illness immediately after boasting to Philippe of his intention to lay Normandy to waste. It is typical of this time period for chroniclers to invent a manner of death that provides a sense of justice for the sins of the person who has died. Most historians doubt the veracity of this account of Geoffrey’s death.
Likewise, some historians think that the story of Geoffrey’s death in a tournament was invented by Philip in order to keep Henry II from learning about a new plot against him.
However, it is known that Geoffrey Plantagenet enjoyed tournaments and did participate in them.
Because he drew his last breath in France, Geoffrey’s body was not taken to England for burial. He was put to eternal rest in the choir of Notre Dame de Paris Cathedral, but his tombstone was destroyed in the 18th century, before the French revolution.
All images are in the public domain.
Text © 2017 Olivia Longueville and J.C. Plummer
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