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juniperpublishers-nutrition · 2 years

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Impacts of Training to Member of Society on Production of Freshwater Prawn and Carps Polyculture using Feed in Rural Areas of Kashiganj in Mymensingh

Abstract

A society of 58 farmers in Kashiganj of Phulpur upazila in Mymensingh district cultured carps and giant freshwater prawn in 59 ponds where 45 people produced carp fishes in 50 ponds, and five farmers with other eight members cultured carps-prawn-poultry polyculture in nine ponds for about nine months. The members of the society received training and technical assistance for polyculture. The fry @ 20000/acre of prawn and carps such as catla, rohu, mrigal, silver carp, mirror carp and silver barb were released in March 2016. The fry of prawn was released with carps in nine ponds in one village – Biska (L05) only. The water quality parameters and pond bottom soil properties were within the productive ranges. Formulated feed (30% protein) used to feed prawn two times daily, and supplementary feed (15% protein) was used to feed carps two times daily and feeds were adjusted fortnightly. Farmers started to harvest prawn (100-150g) and carps (0.80-2.10kg) and silver barb (150-200g) from middle of October up to the end of November. The crude protein of prawn was higher than mirror carp followed by rohu, catla, silver carp and silver barb. The estimated yearly production of carps, prawn of 59 ponds (approximately 35 acres) and poultry birds was about 30 ton which was about six times higher than the past from 59 ponds. Physico-chemical and biological properties of water, and feed had significantly combined effects and percentage contribution (MR2) on the growth and production of prawn (MR2 = 50.84%), and different species of fishes such as catla (MR2 = 80.28%), rohu (MR2 = 69.22%), mrigal (MR2 = 58.52%), silver carp (MR2 = 72.93%), mirror carp (MR2 = 61.62%) and silver barb (MR2 = 55.80%). These factors had almost positively linear correlation with prawn and different species of fishes. The increased production was due to use of fertilizer, feed and proper care taken by owners and the members of the society. Five farmers produced 1000 poultry birds in two lots from five farms which established by the side of ponds. Pond owners shared the benefits with the society at the ratio of 50:50 and kept for the welfare of the society.

Keywords: Training, Society; Water properties; Prawn; Carps; Combined effects; Correlation

Introduction

Fish production through aquaculture practice is a blooming industry in Bangladesh [1,2]. Most of the people are now trying hard to culture and to produce good amount of fish from their own land. They have been even converting rice fields into culture ponds to get more benefits than rice production since around early 90’s [1,3,4]. Now because of this practice, fish production through aquaculture is increased in many folds and people are getting fish many times more than natural habitats. Due to mainly over exploitation and insufficient recruitment of fingerlings, natural production of open water fisheries such as rivers, reservoirs, ox-bow lakes (haor, baor), natural depressions (beel) are gradually decreasing [5,6] as a result scarcity of fishes became dominant. It was assumed that aquaculture practice is only the way to produce fish to minimize the increasing demand of fish for people of the country [6,7]. Government of Bangladesh is trying hard to grow fish following several ways and to alleviate poverty of poor fishers and producers through polyculture [5,8]. Some NGOs already had started working to facilitate the activities of fish farmers for better production of integrated production of carps, prawn, shrimp, poultry in the country and getting very good output in rural areas through active participation of members of the society [2,8-10].

The society members are working to produce carps, prawn, poultry and rice though fish cum shrimp farming, fish cum prawn farming, fish cum prawn cum poultry farming, paddy cum fish culture etc. in the country. Day by day the cooperation of NGOs have been increasing through training in many folds in different fields of culture such as pond preparation, fertilization, fry rearing, and prawn, shrimp and fish culture, and technical assistance to record of environmental parameters, harvesting and marketing etc. An NGO, Agro-Based Industries and Technical Development Project-Phase II (ATDP-II), Dhaka has been working hard to develop fisheries sector in the country. Therefore, ATDP II selected Kashiganj under Phulpur upazila of Mymensingh district to train the members of society named as Gaint Freshwater Shrimp and Fish Farmer Cooperative Society Ltd., Kashiganj, Mymensingh. To facilitate the activities of the society, technical support and other scientific ideas were given by the Consultant through close supervision and training. Therefore, the present work was undertaken to study and to report on enhancement of production and yield of shrimp and carp fishes using fertilizer and feed in ponds in the area of Kashiganj of Mymensingh district through community participation.

Materials and Methods

A society of 58 members of five villages of Kashiganj under upazila of Phulpur of Mymensingh district was taken all the measures to produce fish and prawn using polyculture technique through aquaculture practice in 59 ponds with the technical help and training of Agro-Based Industries and Technology Development Project II (ATDP-II), Dhaka. The ATDP-II first formed the society in the area of Kashiganj named as Gaint Shrimp and Fish Farmer Cooperative Society Ltd., Kashiganj, Mymensingh. The members of the society received training and technical assistances for polyculture of golda chingri (gaint freshwater prawn) and carp fishes (plankton feeder fishes) from ATDP-II. Five farmers practiced fish cum prawn cum poultry polyculture in their land. The ponds of the area were first surveyed and village-wise arranged for the sake of work.

In dry season (December-January), the ponds were first limed @ 0.50 kg/dec and then embankment was repaired. The entrance of fish through inlet and escape of fish through outlets were controlled by nylon net with small mesh supported by bamboo made fence locally known as ‘Bana’. Excess water was drained through outlet when necessary arose. The average water depth of pond was ranged from 1.0 to 1.50 m. The ponds were fertilized with urea and triple super phosphate (TSP) @ 1.0 kg/dec each to facilitate the production of live food organisms. Then after seven days, a total of 20000 fry/acre of 1.5-2 g PL40 of gaint freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii, Palaemonidae) and fry of 10-15 g of six species of carps such as catla (Catla catla, Cyprinidae), rohu (Labeo rohita, Cyprinidae), mrigal (Cirrhina mrigala, Cyprinidae), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Cyprinidae), mirror (common) carp (Cyprinus carpio, Cyprinidae) and rajputi (Puntius gonionatus, Cyprinidae) (fry 3-4 g) at the ratio of 3:2:4:2:2:4:2 per acre were released in ponds of one village (Biska, L05) where poultry birds were farmed nearby ponds. Poultry manure was used as biofertilizer and feed for them. Same number of fry of carps were released in ponds of other four villages at the ratio of 3:4:3:3:4:2 per acre. The urea and TSP were used fortnightly up to September. Supplementary feed (15% protein) prepared with mixture of mustard oil cake (10% protein) and rice bran (5% protein), and formulated feed (30% protein) used to feed carp fishes, and prawn cum carps cum poultry birds polyculture system were used to feed twice daily at the rate of 1.50% body weight of cultured species. Feed was adjusted every fortnight after weighing 10% culture spcies of the stock. The harvesting of carps and prawn was started periodically from middle of September up to the end of November of the same year. Growth of plankton as natural food organisms of ponds was monitored.

Hand on training

The ponds of the farmers were first surveyed and the areas for improvement were identified. The members of the society, young men of the area involved in polyculture and skilled labourers were trained for different aspects of pond culture and management. Training was given how to prepare ponds for culture after drying, to release fry in ponds after carrying from nursery, use of decomposed cow dung, and poultry waste (litter). They were also trained how to measure water depth, water temperature, water transparency (secchi disc reading), water colour, pH, dissolved oxygen, to collect mud (bottom soil) of ponds and to prepare mud samples for analysis, to observe plankton growth, to grow plankton in ponds as live food for fishes, fry weighing, to minimize oxygen deficiency using lime and cut pieces of banana trees etc. in pond. They were trained to manage all the works of society including handling of money for common purpose like purchase of prawn fry from nursery far away from the society area and feed ingredients from local market. Training was given how to identify inbreeded fry produced from the same stock, market assessment, and how to send caught fishes quickly to the market for getting good market value. They were also trained to maintain the healthy atmosphere of ponds to culture carp fishes and prawn. A list of optimum ranges of some important physico-chemical environmental factors of water with tolerable levels were presented (Table 1) so that the farmers (owners) and society members could understand the quality of water.

Physico-chemical properties of water

Physico-chemical properties of water were analyzed following the standard methods [11]. For convenience, samples were collected from five locations of each of five villages. These properties of water were analyzed by using different chemicals and equipments at the spot and in the laboratory. The properties of water such as water temperature, water depth, water transparency, water colour, turbidity, pH, dissolved O2, alkalinity, Nitrate-N, and ortho-P were analyzed. Water colour of ponds was recorded by eye estimation. Temperature (°C) and dissolved O2 (mg/L) of water were determined by Digital Oxygen meter (HANNA instruments model: HI-9142) and digital meter (HEQEP CP 6014 G2). Depth of water (m) by graduated pole and transparency of water (cm) by secchi disc were measured. Turbidity (mg/L) was measured by turbidity meter. pH of water was measured by a digital pH meter (HANNA instruments, Model: HI 8314). Alkalinity of water (mg/L) was estimated using alkalinity meter after chemical treatment. Nitrate-N (mg/L) was determined after filtration of 100 ml water through glass microfilter paper using Nitrogen-5 powder pillow and then direct reading from Spectrophotometer DR 2010. Similarly Phosphate-P (mg/L) was determined from filtered water using reagent pillow Phosver-3 and then direct reading from Spectrophotometer DR 2010.

Estimation of chlorophyll a of phytoplankton (Clesceri et al. 1989)

Fifty ml of phytoplankton sample was filtered with an electric filtration unit using microfilter paper (Sartorius filter paper of 0.45 µm mesh size and 47 mm). These filtered samples together with filter paper were taken into test tubes, ground with glass rod and finally mixed with 10 ml of 100% redistilled acetone. Each of the test tubes was wrapped with aluminium foil to inhibit penetration of light. The wrapped test tubes were kept into a refrigerator over night. Then the refrigerated samples were homogenized for 2 minutes followed by centrifugation at 4000 rpm for 10 minutes. After centrifugation, the supernatant was separated and taken for chlorophyll a estimation. Optical densities of the samples were recorded at 664, 647 and 630 nm by using UV spectrophotometer (Spectronic 1001 plus). A blank with 100% acetone was run simultaneously. Chlorophyll a content was calculated by the following formula:

Chlorophyll a (mg/L) = 11.85 (OD 664) – 1.54 (OD 647) – 0.08 (OD 630)

Collection and identification of plankton

Plankton (phytoplankton and zooplankton) were collected using three consecutive plankton nets of different mesh sizes (10, 30 and 70 μm) arranged in downward direction. The end of each net was tied with plastic tube so that the filtrate finally collected in tube. The downward direction meant that the net of mesh size 70 μm was placed in side the net of mesh size 30 μm and then these two nets were placed in side the net of mesh size 10 μm. Three nets were arranged in such a way that water passed through all the nets and final filtrates were collected in the tubes attached at the end of each net. About 10 L of water was filtered from each sampling station. The sample collected from three tubes was preserved in 6% buffered formalin (mixture of 6 ml conc. formalin; 4.0 g NaH2PO4 {Sodium biphosphate, monobasic} H2O; 6.50 Na2PO4 {Sodium monophosphate, dibasic} and volume was made 100 ml with distilled water) in 100 ml vial and carried to the laboratory for identification. From vial, 1.0 ml sample was taken by pipette and put in the groove of Sedgwick Rafter counting chamber (SR cell) of one ml capacity and organisms were counted as outlined by [12] under microscope. Plankton was identified to the levels of genera where possible in accordance with the procedures given by [13-21]. Phytoplankton was identified as harmful phytoplankton (blue-green algae) and beneficial phytoplankton (green and yellow green algae).

Chemical analysis of bottom soil of ponds

Bottom soil (mud) of ponds from five locations of each village were collected. Bottom mud samples were air dried in the room. Texture of bottom soil was determined after treatment of dry soil with 5% calgon solution using hydrometer. pH of sample (soil: distilled/deionized water suspension = 1:10) was measured by a digital pH meter (HANNA instruments, Model: HI 8314). Organic carbon was calculated following wet oxidation method. Total N was analyzed by Microkjeldahl method. Ortho-P was determined after extraction of sample with 0.5 M NaHCO3 and then direct reading using UV Spectrophotometer.

Analysis of supplemental feed

The used supplemental feed containing 15% protein prepared from mustard oil cake and rice bran as sources of total protein. A feed mill prepared diet contained 30% protein for shrimp was bought from market. Feed was analyzed for proximate composition [22] such as moisture, total protein, total lipids, ash, nitrogen free extract (NFE) and crude fibre in the laboratory of Department of Aquaculture, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh.

Collection and identification of fishes

Fishes other than the cultured species entered in ponds with fry of cultured species when purchased and with rainwater from outside were collected from the fishers during harvest of carps. Fishers caught fishes by sein net and cast net during sampling. Fishes were identified at the spot as far as possible and unidentified fishes were preserved in buffered formalin. These preserved fishes were carried to the laboratory of Department of Aquaculture, BAU, Mymensingh for identification. These fishes were identified upto species level using their morphometric characters with help of keys given by [23-26].

Statistical analyses

The growth and production of fishes depended on many factors which were worked as independent factors. These independent factors (xi) were physico-chemical factors of water, live foods (Plankton), feed had combined (multiple) effects on dependent factors (yi) such as the growth and production of prawn and different fishes. The effects may vary from one fish to another. The independent and dependent factors are as follows:

Independent factors were: Water temperature (x1), water transparency (x2), water depth (x3), TSS (x4), TDS (x5), pH (x6), dissolved O2 (x7), alkalinity (x8), nitrate-N (x9), ortho-P (x10), chlorophyll a (x11), beneficial algae (x12), zooplankton (x13), benthos (x14) and feed (x15);

Where, dependent factors (Prawn and fishes) were: Prawn (y1), catla (y2), rohu (y3), mrigal (y4), silver carp (y5), mirror carp (y6) and sorpunti (y7).

The equation of multiple correlation, yi = a0 ± a1x1 ± a2x2 ± a3x3 ± a4x4…………………….a14x14

The equation of linear correlation, yi = a0 ± aixi

Cost-benefit analysis

It was done following simple calculation at the end of the experiment. Cost of feed, fry and fertilizers, and sell value of carp fishes, shrimp and poultry birds were taken into account for calculation of cost-benefit analysis.

Results and Discussion

Overall presentation of the area and available ingredients

There were 59 ponds covered an area of 35 acres in five villages in the selected area of Kashiganj under Mymensingh district (Table 2). Among these ponds, 15 (9.50 acres) located in Shuvoliapara village, 12 (7.50 acres) located in Ghojoharpur, 12 (7 acres) in Sonura, 11 (6 acres) in Ghituari and 9 (5 acres) in Biska. The average size of pond varied from 25 to 150 dec. This size represents almost all the ponds in rural areas in the country which has the similarity with the findings of [2,27]. There were about 14 ingredients available in the local market of the area where fishers and growers used these ingredients to prepare feed for prawn, carp and poultry (Table 3). These ingredients were fish meal, fish scrap meal, rice bran, rice polish, wheat bran, maize bran, wheat flour, mustard oil cake, soyabean cake meal, lintel cake meal, groundnut cake meal, shark liver oil and molasses which are almost similar with the findings of [5-7]. Among these ingredients, fish meal, fish scrap meal, mustard oil cake, soyabean cake meal, lintel cake meal and groundnut cake meal contained high total protein, total lipids and ash (minerals). Rice bran, rice polish, wheat bran, maize meal, wheat flour, chopra cake meal and molasses contained high carbohydrate (nitrogen free extract, NFE). Shark liver oil contained very high total lipids (86-90%). These ingredients contained reasonable amount of different composition which has the similarity with the findings of [10,28]. Mostly the feeds used were prepared from these ingredients. After analysis of proximate composition in the laboratory, it was found that the artificial feed for prawn and carps contained 30.15% protein where the supplemental feed contained 14.60% protein for carps (Table 4) which were suitable recommended levels [8,10,28].

Water and bottom soil properties, and plankton of ponds

Water samples of ponds from four locations of each village were collected to record physico-chemical environmental parameters of water (Table 5). All the water qualities, phytoplankton & zooplankton production ranges and fish production has the similarities with the findings of [29,30]. Temperature was ranged from 27.40 to 30.90 oC during the period. Turbidity was ranged from 10 to 58 mg/L. The pH of water was found within the alkaline range which was favourable for plankton growth and fish culture. Dissolved oxygen, Nitrate-N and ortho-P of water of ponds were within the suitable ranges of good quality pond water. It was found that chlorophyll a content of phytoplankton of both beneficial and harmful algae was ranged from 47.60 to 57.10µg/L which was recorded as poor amount in ponds might be due to grazing by carps and prawn. Most of the ponds of carps contained more beneficial algae than harmful ones, but prawn and carps cultured ponds in village Biska (L05) contained lesser amount beneficial algae than harmful ones (Table 5 & 6). Shrimp and carps grazed more on beneficial algae which ultimately reduced beneficial algae in ponds of L05 though released and naturally available fishes fed on algae in all the ponds. Only culture ponds were greenish in colour more than stocking ponds. Zooplankton was also found in lesser number in ponds with carps and carps than ponds with only carps which indicate that prawn and carps fed more on zooplankton than ponds with only carps. It was observed that the smell of decomposed feed was coming out from some ponds otherwise the ponds were almost free from any hazards. Beneficial phytoplankton grew during the period of culture which were Chlorella, Cyclotella, Cymbella, Euglena, Pediastrum, Ankistrodesmus, Ceratium, Volvox, Melosira, Navicula, Nitzschia, Peridinium, Pinnularia, Synedra, and Surirella, and harmful algae (blue-green algae) were Microcystis, Anabaena, Chroococcus, Nostoc and Oscillatoria [30,31].

Among zooplankton, rotifer was dominant where some important genera such as Asplanchna, Brachionus, Ceriodaphnia, Hexarthra, Keratella, Trichocerca, Filinia and Polyarthra were abundant [32]. Beyond plankton production, benthic fauna such as annelids and larvae of insects were grown which contributed as good food organisms for bottom feeders [33-35].Chironomid larvae was found dominant among the insect larvae in the fish ponds which contributed a lot as live food for bottom feeders [35,36]. Among the phytoplankton, the harmful algae were found dominant but available in poor amount in all the ponds. These are harmful for fish but poor growth of these blue-greens didn’t create any problem for the growth of prawn and carps [30, 31,37].Pond bottom soil was analyzed for texture, pH, total N and Phosphate-P during culture (Table 1). Soil texture was found sandy clay which was suitable for fish culture [33]. It was found that pH ranged from 6.7 to 7.5 which indicate that the water was almost alkaline in nature and favourable for fish culture. Organic carbon (0.40 to 0.67%), total N (0.25 to 0.35%) and available P (Phosphate-P) (10 to 12 ppm) were almost within the suitable ranges for good quality water of pond for fish culture. Habib et al. [33] and Habib al et al. [38] recorded properties of pond bottom soil which were within the optimum ranges of culture ponds has the similarity with the present findings.

Production of prawn, carps and poultry birds

The fry of giant freshwater prawn (Golda) and different species of carps were bought from suppliers and released in ponds in all the five villages in first week of March. The fry of all the carps and prawn were grown rapidly for first six months and then found little bit slow from September. Weight of fishes and prwan were taken first on July 19 and then Nov. 24, 2001 (Table 7). A total of 22 fish species were caught and identified during the study (Table 8). Increments of weight was satisfactory but not so promising because all the species of fishes were not growing similarly. It might be due to competition for feeding among cultured species, suitability of feed and other related factors [5,9,39]. These cultured species were first harvested in early September and then ended at the end of November. Fishes were weighted 0.80-2.50 kg except silver barb (rajpunti) (150-200 g) and prawn (100-150 g). With prawn and carps in the village Biska, poultry was grown and reared nearby ponds. Five owners and some members of the society produced about 1000 poultry birds in two lots which were reared by the side of five ponds. The poultry manure was used as biofertilizer and raw feed for prawn and carps which seemed to enhance the growth of these cultured species. The gross production of carps, prawn and poultry birds were about 30 ton from 35 acres of ponds which was about six times more than the past. Where fertilizers, feed and manure were not used and proper management was not taken, and no vigilance and activity of society people in the past [40]. The estimated benefits was about Tk. 500000 (US$ 6024 approx., @ Tk. 83 = 1.00 US$) only. Beyond cultured species, there were about 22 species of both indigenous and exotic fishes were found and caught during harvest time (Table 9). These fishes were grown naturally and the fries of these fishes were entered with fries of cultured species in ponds.

Combined effects of water properties, plankton and feed on prawn and fishes

Physico-chemical properties of water, plankton and feed had combined effect on the growth and production of freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rogenbergii) and different species of fishes (Table 10). The combined (Multiple) effect was simply (p < 0.05) on the growth and production of prawn (R = 0.713), mrigal (R = 0.765) and silver barb (R = 0.747) where highly significant (p < 0.01) on the growth and production of catla (R = 0.896), rohu (R = 0.832), mrigal (R =- 0.765), silver carp (R = 0.854) and mirror carp (R = 0.854). Physico-chemical factors, plankton and feed (Independent factors) had contribution (percentage) on the growth and production of prawn, catla, rohu, mrigal, silver carp, mirror carp and silver barb (Table 10) which were 50.84, 80.28, 69.22, 58.52, 72.93, 61.62 and 55.80%, respectively. The growth and production of prawn and fishes were linearly and almost positively correlated with these independent factors during the study (Table 11). Habib and Chowdhury [41] reported that water quality parameters and feed had combined (multiple) effect on the growth and production of different species of fishes which has similarity with the present findings. Habib et al. [41] found that bottom soil properties had combined (Multiple) effect on the growth of benthic fauna which is similar with the present results.

Conclusion

Production of carp fishes, prawn and poultry birds was about 30 tons which was six times more than the past from 59 ponds of 35 acres in the area due to use of fertilizer, feed, manure and proper care taken by owners, people of owners and members of the society. Five farmers produced about 1000 birds (90% survivality) in two lots from five farms which established by the side of the ponds. The physico-chemical factors of water, phytoplankton, chlorophyll a of phytoplankton, zooplankton, benthos and feed had positively and effectively combined effect and contribution (Percentage) on the growth of prawn and fishes. Pond owners shared the benefits of Tk. 500000 (US$ 6024 approx., @ Tk. 83 = 1.00 US$) with the society at the ratio of 50:50. The farmers and members of the society were satisfied due to this good bulk of production and income of the society. They were very happy for getting higher income and benefits than the past. The people of the area, members of the society and owners were encouraged to take more initiatives for culture and production of carps, prawn and poultry birds in coming years.

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#sonic nutrition #chicken nutrition #mushrooms nutrition #coconut nutrition #Juniper Publishers #open access journals

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peertechz · 2 years

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Physico-chemical properties of Ethiopian Apis mellifera Honey: Review

The aim of this review is focused on the physical, chemical, and antioxidant properties of Ethiopian honey such as moisture contents, reducing sugars (glucose and fructose), free acidity, pH, hydroxymethylfurfural, (HMF), phenolic compounds, minerals, and water-insoluble solid and enzymatic activity of honey. Generally, the average values of the parameter were within the acceptable ranges of National, EU, and FAO/WHO which was set as permission limit requirement for general blossom honey quality. Accordingly, HMF (9.46±7.11mg/kg), moisture contents (18.93%±1.92%), free acidity (23.2±10 meq/kg), pH (3.94±0.14) ash content (0.32%±0.13%), electrical Conductivity (0.41±0.16 mS/cm), water-insoluble solids (0.20%±0.07%), reducing Sugar (70.46%±3.5,0%), and Sucrose (2.75%±1.1%) of the honey was found to be low, this value suggesting that Ethiopian honey were of good quality. The total phenolic contents of honey were high and strongly correlated with the antioxidant activity/radical scavenging capacity. A large portion of research findings are not focused on medicinal value therefore, more research would be important to focus on honey from medicinal plants and to build up the possible relations between the bioactive substances in plant parts and their nectars.

https://www.peertechzpublications.com/articles/IJASFT-8-243.php

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mbimphblog · 3 years

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STUDIES ON DIVERSITY OF FREELIVING FRESH WATER PROTOZOA FROM ERODE REGION, TAMILNADU, INDIA | UTTAR PRADESH JOURNAL OF ZOOLOGY

The current findings must describe investigations on the diversity of free-living fresh water protozoa from the Erode region of Tamil Nadu. pH, salinity, temperature, calcium, nitrites, phosphate, and dissolved oxygen were among the physicochemical parameters studied. The pH was measured at 29°C, with a salinity of 0.2700 percent, calcium of 480 mg/liter, nitrates of 0.0408 mg/liter, and phosphate of -4.6956 mg/liter. The structural alteration resulted in the identification of 27 species. Two divisions were classified according to the taxonomic categorization. The phylum ciliophora has eight species of kinetofragminophorea. The phylum Saromsttigophora includes four species in this subphylum. The phylum Ciliophora includes two species of the Oligohymenophorea class. Please see the link :- http://mbimph.com/index.php/UPJOZ/article/view/1782

#Fresh water protozoa #physico- chemical parameter #oligohymenophorea.#saromsttigophora #ciliophora

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ijtsrd · 3 years

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Monthly Variations in Water Quality Physico Chemical Parameters of Bakhira Lake Water of District Sant Kabir Nagar, Uttar Pradesh, India

by Dikshit Archana | Mishra Surya Prakash "Monthly Variations in Water Quality (Physico-Chemical) Parameters of Bakhira Lake Water of District Sant Kabir Nagar, Uttar Pradesh, India"

Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-2 , February 2021,

URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd38419.pdf

Paper Url: https://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/zoology/38419/monthly-variations-in-water-quality-physicochemical-parameters-of-bakhira-lake-water-of-district-sant-kabir-nagar-uttar-pradesh-india/dikshit-archana

internationaljournalsinengineering, callforpaperengineering, ugcapprovedengineeringjournal

The water samples were collected monthly from July 2017 to June 2018 for the study of water quality physico chemical parameters of Bakhira Lake water. The results showed variations in the water quality physico chemical parameters within the months. The mean water temperature varied from 21 310C, pH 7.4 8.4, Alkalinity 122 168 mg l, Turbidity 32 52, Total hardness 110 160 mg l, TDS 390 470 mg l, Conductance 340.6 368.4 Âµmhos cm, Dissolved Oxygen 7.2 8.4 mg l, BOD 1.7 3.6 mg l and COD 20.6 48.0 mg l. The results of all the analyzed water quality physico chemical parameters were normal range recommended by national and international standards, hence the water of Bakhira Lake supports aquatic animals and also suitable for irrigation purposes.

#Bakhira lake #Monthly variation #Physico-chemical parameters

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biogenericpublishers · 4 years

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A Case-Study of the Physico-Chemical Parameters of the Public Water Supply in the University of Port Harcourt by Johnson Ajinwo OR in Open Access Journal of Biogeneric Science and Research

Abstract

Water –borne diseases is on the rise currently in the third world countries as a result of lack of routine water analysis checks to ensure that the desired quality of drinking water is upheld. In the light of the above, this research aimed at determining the physico-chemical properties and mineral content of seventeen water samples from the students’ residential areas and environs of the Main Campus of the University of Port Harcourt, Choba, Rivers State, Nigeria was carried out. The results showed that most of the physico-chemical quality indices of the water samples were within acceptable limits, except the nitrate levels of samples 13 and 14. The pH of all the samples were found to be acidic, with sample 12 having the lowest pH of 4.44. The hardness levels of the samples were determined to be very soft affirming the relationship between acidic pH and soft water. This increase in the corrosivity and plumbosolvency of the samples may result in long-term risk of metal poisoning from plumbing materials. However, the metal analysis showed only slight sodium and calcium contamination which may pose no health risk.

Introduction

About 829,000 people die annually from diarrhoea caused by poor sanitation, hand hygiene and drinking contaminated water. A number of diseases which include cholera, dysentery, diarrhoea, polio, typhoid and hepatitis A are transmitted through contaminated water and poor hygiene. Deaths from contaminated water are preventable and efforts aimed at tackling this ugly menace be put in place. The 2010 UN General Assembly emphasised that access to water and sanitation are basic human rights requirements. But water which is the number one liquid for life has come under intense pressure, owing to climate change, population explosion, urbanization and scarcity of water in many places. According to WHO, about 50% of the world’s population would be living in water-stressed areas in 2025 [1].

Water quality can be compromised by the presence of unwanted chemicals, micro-organisms and even radiological hazards. The problem of provision of good quality water for human consumption in Nigeria has been a major challenge that has received little or no attention. The National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control, (NAFDAC) is the body charged with the responsibility of ensuring the provision of good quality drinking water through the registration and quality assurance of commercially available drinking water [2]. However, majority of the Nigerian populace, in particular students shun commercially available water possibly due to the cost implication and still resort to water sources that lack quality assurance.

The vital role water plays include its ability to dissolve a wide range of substances, and has gained the status of being tagged the ‘universal solvent’. In the human body, two-thirds of the body is made up of water; which is the basic component of cells, tissues and the circulatory system. Due to the solvation character of water, cells are able to access nutrients in the body to produce energy, undergo metabolism and excrete waste in the body. Similarly, for drugs taken to elicit their desired activities, the drug substances must first be dissolved, prior to absorption into systemic circulation. It is well-known that acute dehydration may lead to death, which underscores the role of water as a life-sustaining fluid of great value and importance.

The University of Port Harcourt is sited in Choba community, Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers state, Nigeria. The state is one of the South-south states that constitute the oil-rich Niger-Delta Area, which has been the subject of oil exploration for more than 50 years. During this time, there have been oil spillages in the environment resulting in air, soil and water pollutions. This is evidenced in the recent United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) report on the effects of oil spillages in Ogoniland in Rivers state. In this report water samples were obtained from boreholes drilled specifically for the research. The findings from the research revealed high levels of hydrocarbon, some organic and inorganic substances, some of which were carcinogenic [3]. The results further showed that in many locations, petroleum hydrocarbons had migrated to the groundwater. Furthermore, the host community of the University has also played host to an American oil exploration company for over two decades. To this end, it is expected that both soil and water in and around the community will be contaminated, especially with hydrocarbons and heavy metals.

This research aims to determine the physico-chemical parameters and the mineral content of the water sourced from deep water table within the students’ residential area and environs of the main campus of the University of Port Harcourt and to ascertain if the contamination is within safe limits. The standards by which this research would judge water quality is that prescribed by the World Health Organization (WHO), the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Nigerian Industrial Standard developed by the Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON).

Materials and Methods

1.1. Materials

1.1.1. Water Samples

Drinking water samples were collected from students’ residential areas and environs at the University of Port Harcourt Main Campus (Unipark, Abuja); the samples were collected from seventeen locations, which were described in (Table 1). The samples were collected using 2 L glass bottles fitted with an inner cork and an outer screw cap. The bottles were initially washed with detergent, rinsed thoroughly with tap water and then rinsed with distilled water. Prior to sample collection, the bottle was rinsed three times with the sample to be collected before collection. The samples were stored at room temperature. All titrations carried out in the physico-chemical analysis were done in triplicate for each sample and the average titre calculated.

1.2. Methods

1.2.1. pH Determination

Apparatus: pH Meter.

The pH meter was calibrated with standardized solutions of pH 4.0 and 9.1 respectively. The pH was read after inserting the electrode of the pH meter into the sample and allowing the reading to stabilize.

1.2.2. Total Alkalinity

1.2.3. Apparatus/Reagents: Burette, pipette, conical flasks, 0.001105 M HC1, phenolphthalein indicator, and methyl orange indicator.25 ml of the sample was pipetted into a conical flask and 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator was added. There was no colour change (indicating the absence of carbonate and hydroxyl alkalinity). 2 drops of methyl orange indicator was added to the sample and titrated with the acid to a yellow endpoint.

1.2.4. Calculation:

Total Alkalinity (mg CaCO_3/L) =(M x V x 50000)/V_ (sample ) Bicarbonate Alkalinity (mg CaCO_3/L)=(M x V x 30500)/V_(sample )

Where M= molarity of HCI, V= titre value, and Vsample= Volume of Sample

1.2.5. Dissolved Co2 Content

Apparatus/Reagents: Burette, pipette, conical flasks, 0.01 M NaOH, phenolphthalein indicator.

25 ml of the sample was pipetted into a conical flask and 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator was added. Titration was done against the base. Endpoint was determined by colour change from colourless to pink.

Calculation

Dissoved CO_2 (mg/L)=(V x N x E x 1000)/V_(sample )

Where V=titre value , N=normality of the base (0.0128), E=equivalent

Weight of co2(22),Vsample=Volume of Sample

1.2.6. Chloride Determination (Precipitation Titration)

Principle:

The principle behind this titration is the precipitation of C1 as AgCl by AgNO3 before AgCrO4 (red) is formed at the endpoint

Apparatus/Reagents: Burette, pipette, conical flasks, 0.014N AgNO3 and K2CrO4 indicator

25 ml of sample was pipetted into a conical flask, 2 drops of the indicator was added and this was titrated against AgNO3 solution until there was a colour change form yellow to brick red.

Calculation:

Chloride (mg/L) =(V x N x E x 1000)/V_(sample )

Where V= titre value, N= normality of AgNO3 (0.014), E= equivalent

Weight of chloride ion (35.5),Vsample=Volume of sample used

1.2.7. Silica Determination (Molybdosilicate Method)

Principle

The Molybdosilicate Method is based on the principle that at a pH of about 1.2, ammonium molybdate ((NH4)6M07024.4H20) reacts with any silica and phosphate present in a sample to form hetero-polyacids. Oxalic acid is then added no neutralize any molybdophosphoric acid present. This reaction produces a yellow colour whose intensity is proportional to the silica that reacted with the molybdate. Standard colour solutions of silica are also prepared and the colour intensity can be visually compared or its absorbance can be measured.

Apparatus: Conical flasks, beakers, pipettes, ammonium molybdate reagent: (NH4)6MO7O24.4H2O), 1:1 HCI, oxalic acid (H2C204.2H20)

Ammonium molybdate: prepared by dissolving 10g of (NH4)6M07024.4H20) in distilled water.

Oxalic acid: prepared by dissolving 7.5 g of H2C204.2H20 in 100 ml of distilled water.

Potassium Chromate (K2CrO4) Solution: prepared by dissolving 315 mg of K2CrO4 in distilled water and made up to 500 ml.

Borax Solution: prepared by dissolving 2.5 g of borate decahydrate Na2B407.10H20 in distilled water and made up to 250 ml.

The standard colour solution of concentrations 0.00 — 1.00 (mg Si/L) was prepared by mixing volumes of distilled water, potassium chromate and borax in the proportion given in (Table 2).

The absorbance of the standard was measured using a UV spectrophotometer at 390 nm. 50 ml of sample was pipetted into a beaker and 2 ml of ammonium molybdate and 1 ml of 1:1 HC1 were added to the beaker. The resulting solution was thoroughly mixed and allowed to stand for 7 minutes. 2 ml of oxalic acid was then added and after 2 minutes, the absorbance of the solution was measured at 390 nm.

Calculation:

The silica content of each sample was determined by means of simple proportion, using the formula:

(Absorbance of standard)/(concentration of silica in standard )=(Absorbance of sample)/(concentration of silica in sample )

1.2.8. Total Hardness Determination (Edta Titrimetric Method)

Principle

Ethylene Diaminetetraacetic Acid, (EDTA) and its sodium salt forms chelated soluble complex when added to a solution of certain metal cations. The addition of a small amount of a dye such as Eriochrome Black T to an aqueous solution containing calcium and magnesium ions at pH of about 10, results in a wine red coloured solution. If EDTA is added as a titrant, any magnesium or calcium will be complexed and the solution will turn from wine red to blue.

Apparatus/Reagents: Burette, pipette, conical flasks, 0.01 M EDTA, Ammonia buffer, Eriochrome Black T indicator. 50 ml of sample was pipetted into the conical flask and 5 drops of indicator was added. 20 ml of Ammonia buffer was added and the resulting mixture was titrated with 0.01 M EDTA solution. The endpoint was determined by a colour change from wine red to blue.

Calculation

Total Hardness (mgCaCO_3/L)=(V x M x E x 2.5 x 1000)/V_sample

Where V=titre value,M=concentration of EDTA,2.5= (molecular mass of Ca〖CO〗_3)/(atomic mass of Ca^(2+) )

E=equivalent weight of Ca^(2+) (40),and V_ sample=Volume of sample

1.2.9. Sulphate Determination (Turbidimetric Method)

Principle:

Sulphate ion is precipitated in a hydrochloric acid medium with barium chloride (BaCI2) to form barium sulphate (BaSO4) crystals of uniform size. The absorbance of the BaSO4 suspension is measured using a UV spectrophotometer and the sulphate ion concentration is determined from the calibration curved developed

Apparatus: UV spectrophotometer, conical flasks, pipettes, beakers, spatula, sulphate conditioning reagent, sulphate stock solution.

Preparation Of Conditioning Reagent: the conditioning reagent was prepared by mixing 45 g of NaCI, 18 ml of conc. HCI, 60 ml of 20 % isopropyl alcohol, 30 ml of glycerol and 180 ml of distilled water in a beaker and stirred thoroughly with a glass rod until the solution was clear. Preparation of Sulphate Stock Solution: this was prepared by dissolving 147.9 mg of anhydrous sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) in 1000 ml of distilled water. Preparation of Sulphate Standard Solution: 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 ml respectively of the stock solution was pipetted into five 100 ml volumetric flasks and made up to the 100 ml mark with distilled water to produce 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 ppm of the sulphate stock solution. These were then transferred into appropriately labelled stopper reagent bottles.

Formation Of Baso4 Turbidity: 5 ml of the conditioning reagent was added to the each of the 100 ml standard solution as well as to 100 ml of each sample. This was stirred for one minute. During stirring, a spatula full of BaCl2 crystals was added. The absorbance or each standard as well as each sample was measured using the UV spectrophotometer at 420 nm. The agitated samples were allowed to stand the in UV spectrophotometer for 4 minutes before recording the reading.

Calculation

The absorbance of the five standard solutions were plotted against their concentrations to obtain a calibration curve. The equation of the resulting curve (Equation 1) was used to calculate the sulphate ion content for each sample.

y = 0.0054x + 0 ----------(equation 1)

(R2 = 0.971)

Where y = sulphate ion content (mg/L), 0.0054 = slope, 0 = intercept, R2 = extent of linearity

1.2.10. Nitrate Determination (Brucine Colorimetric Method)

Apparatus/Reagents: UV Spectrophotometer, volumetric flasks, pipettes, beakers, brucine sulphanilic acid (brucine), conc. H2S04, 30 % NaC1, conc. HNO3, stock nitrate solution.

Preparation of Nitric Acid Stock Solution: 8.5 ml of conc. HNO3 was dissolved in distilled water and diluted to 500 ml in a 1000 ml measuring cylinder.

Preparation of Nitrate Standard Solution: 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 ml respectively of the stock solution was pipetted into five 100 ml measuring cylinders and made up to the 100 ml mark with distilled water to produce 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 ppm of the nitrate stock solution. These were then transferred into appropriately labelled conical flasks.

5 ml of the 1 ppm standard solution was pipetted into a volumetric flask. I ml of 30 % NaCI and 10 ml of conc. H2S04 was added gently to the 1 ppm solution, followed by the addition of 0.1 g of brucine. Upon mixing, a deep red colour which turned yellow was produced. The absorbance of the resulting solution was measured using a UV spectrophotometer at 410 nm. The above procedure was repeated using 5 ml each of the remaining as well as for each sample.

Calculation:

The absorbance of each of five standard solutions was plotted against their concentration to obtain a calibration curve. The equation of the resulting curve (Equation 2) was used to calculate the content for each sample.

y = 0.0038x + 0 ----------------- (Equation 2)

�� (R2=0.9747)

Where y = nitrate content (mg/L), 0.0038 = slope, 0 = intercept, R2 = extent of linearity

1.2.11. Determination of Calcium, Iron, Zinc, Lead,Chromium, Cadmium And Sodium Content by Atomic Adsorption Spectroscopy

The levels of the above mentioned heavy metals and non-heavy metals were determined using the atomic adsorption spectrometer of the following model: Bulk Scientific 205 AAA Model 210 VGP (with air-acetylene flame on absorbance mode and with injection volume of 7 ml/min). Calcium was determined at a wavelength of 423 nm, sodium at 589 nm, iron at 248, zinc at 214 nm, chromium 357nm, cadmium at 228 nm and lead at 283 nm.

Standard metal solutions for each metal were prepared and calibration curves for each metal were obtained from a linear plot of the absorbance of the standard against their concentrations in mg/L. This was used to determine the concentration of each metal in each sample by extrapolation from the calibration curves. The instrument was first calibrated to zero by aspirating a blank solution in the nebulizer. The samples were then aspirated in the nebulizer at 7 ml/min and the absorbance of each sample recorded.

Where M= molarity of HCI, V= titre value, and Vsample= Volume of Sample

1.2.5. Dissolved Co2 Content

Apparatus/Reagents: Burette, pipette, conical flasks, 0.01 M NaOH, phenolphthalein indicator.

Calculation

Where V=titre value , N=normality of the base (0.0128), E=equivalent

Weight of co2(22),Vsample=Volume of Sample

1.2.6. Chloride Determination (Precipitation Titration)

Principle:

The principle behind this titration is the precipitation of C1 as AgCl by AgNO3 before AgCrO4 (red) is formed at the endpoint

Apparatus/Reagents: Burette, pipette, conical flasks, 0.014N AgNO3 and K2CrO4 indicator

25 ml of sample was pipetted into a conical flask, 2 drops of the indicator was added and this was titrated against AgNO3 solution until there was a colour change form yellow to brick red.

Calculation:

Where V= titre value, N= normality of AgNO3 (0.014), E= equivalent

Weight of chloride ion (35.5),Vsample=Volume of sample used

1.2.7. Silica Determination (Molybdosilicate Method)

Principle

Apparatus: Conical flasks, beakers, pipettes, ammonium molybdate reagent: (NH4)6MO7O24.4H2O), 1:1 HCI, oxalic acid (H2C204.2H20)

Ammonium molybdate: prepared by dissolving 10g of (NH4)6M07024.4H20) in distilled water.

Oxalic acid: prepared by dissolving 7.5 g of H2C204.2H20 in 100 ml of distilled water.

Potassium Chromate (K2CrO4) Solution: prepared by dissolving 315 mg of K2CrO4 in distilled water and made up to 500 ml.

Borax Solution: prepared by dissolving 2.5 g of borate decahydrate Na2B407.10H20 in distilled water and made up to 250 ml.

The standard colour solution of concentrations 0.00 — 1.00 (mg Si/L) was prepared by mixing volumes of distilled water, potassium chromate and borax in the proportion given in (Table 2).

1.2.8. Total Hardness Determination (Edta Titrimetric Method)

Principle

1.2.9. Sulphate Determination (Turbidimetric Method)

Principle:

Apparatus: UV spectrophotometer, conical flasks, pipettes, beakers, spatula, sulphate conditioning reagent, sulphate stock solution.

Calculation

y = 0.0054x + 0 ----------(equation 1)

(R2 = 0.971)

Where y = sulphate ion content (mg/L), 0.0054 = slope, 0 = intercept, R2 = extent of linearity

1.2.10. Nitrate Determination (Brucine Colorimetric Method)

Apparatus/Reagents: UV Spectrophotometer, volumetric flasks, pipettes, beakers, brucine sulphanilic acid (brucine), conc. H2S04, 30 % NaC1, conc. HNO3, stock nitrate solution.

Preparation of Nitric Acid Stock Solution: 8.5 ml of conc. HNO3 was dissolved in distilled water and diluted to 500 ml in a 1000 ml measuring cylinder.

Calculation:

y = 0.0038x + 0 ----------------- (Equation 2)

(R2=0.9747)

Where y = nitrate content (mg/L), 0.0038 = slope, 0 = intercept, R2 = extent of linearity

1.2.11. Determination of Calcium, Iron, Zinc, Lead,Chromium, Cadmium And Sodium Content by Atomic Adsorption Spectroscopy

Results and Discussions

The results of the Physico-chemical characteristics of the sampled water sources are presented in (Table 3) below. From the results, the samples can be classified as generally soft. The highest hardness value from the result was 14.67 ± 0.00. According to the Twort Hardness classification, this falls in the soft water category [4]. This is directly related to the calcium levels of the samples. Calcium accounts for about two-thirds of water hardness. The recommended upper limit of calcium in drinking water is 50 mg/L. The calcium values were all less than 6.0 mg/L and this reflected in the low hardness values obtained.

The pH values of all samples were not within the acceptable limit of pH for safe drinking-water. The pH values of all the samples were generally acidic with a range of 4.44 to 6.06. Samples 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12 and 17 all had values below 5.0, with sample 12 having the lowest value of 4.44. The acidic nature of most samples can be attributed to the low hardness (soft water) of the samples. Soft water is known to be acidic and this increases the ‘plumbosolvency’ of such water.

Dissolved CO2 is one of the components of carbonate equilibrium in water. The highest value of CO2 was 12.02 ± 1.50 mg/L. Dissolved CO2 is significant in that high values of it (usually above 10 mg/L for surface waters) indicates a significant biological oxidation of the organic matter in water. Dissolved CO2 also has a direct relationship with pH and alkalinity. From the results, the dissolved CO2 level is low for all samples, indicating little biological oxidation of organic matter. At pH values between 4.6 and 8.3, bicarbonate alkalinity is in equilibrium with dissolved CO2. The generally low values of dissolved CO2 corresponds therefore to the generally low (bicarbonate) alkalinity.

Chloride in water does not have a negative health impact. Its impact is aesthetic in nature, with high concentrations exceeding 250 mg/L producing a salty taste (when the associated cation is sodium). The chloride levels of all samples were quite low, the highest value being 66.28 ± 1.33 mg/L.

The silica and sulphate concentrations were very low. The limits are 1-30 mg/L and 250 mg/L, respectively [5]. The silica content was almost insignificant (all less than 0.1 mg/L). The sulphate content was also very low; the highest being 2.96 mg/L for sample 14, and in some cases not determinable (samples. 11 and 15). Nitrate is naturally present in soil, water and food due to the nitrogen cycle. The activities of man also add to increase the nitrate levels in the environment. To this end, WHO and NIS set a limit of 50 mg/L, while EPA stipulates a stricter standard of not more than 10 mg/L (nitrate as nitrogen). The range of nitrate concentration for the samples was 11.32 — 58.68 mg/L by WHO and NIS [6].

Standard samples 13 and 14 have excess of nitrate (58.68 and 52.11 mg/L respectively). The nitrate concentration of sample 12 is just at the threshold (50 mg/L). Nitrate levels can become dangerously increased with the increased use of nitrogen based fertilizers and manure, coupled with the fact that nitrate is extremely soluble. The environment around the boreholes are such that support thriving of bacteria which play a significant role in the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen easily leaches into groundwater from runoff [7]. Since the sample area is inhabited by mainly adults, the most lethal health effect of nitrate poisoning is not expected to be seen (infants are much more sensitive than adults to methaemoglobinaemia caused by nitrate, and essentially most deaths due to nitrate poisoning have been in infants). However, long term exposure to nitrates can, apart from causing methaemoglobinaemia and anaemia, cause diuresis, starchy deposits and haemorrhaging of the spleen. Nitrites in the stomach can react with food proteins to form nitrosoamines; these compounds can also be produced when meat containing nitrites or nitrates is cooked, particularly using high heat. While these compounds are carcinogenic in test animals, evidence is inconclusive regarding their potential to cause cancer (such as stomach cancer) in humans. The Levels of some selected heavy and non-heavy metals in the water samples were determined and the results shown in (Table 4).

The AAS determination of heavy and non-heavy metals showed that the samples were free from these metals except for sodium and calcium. The range of values for sodium was 0.40 — 16.30 mg/L, well below the guideline value set at 50 mg/L for sodium [8]. Sample 17 was the only sample with a trace of zinc (0.13 mg/L) and this was well below the limit of 3 mg/L set by NIS [9] and 5 mg/L set by EPA [10] The increased corrosivity of these samples therefore has an increased associated risk of dissolving metals and non metals including lead, iron, zinc, nickel, brass, copper and cement/concrete [8]. If the water distribution system was laid with pipes containing any of these metals, then the risk of increased levels of these, especially lead would be high. However, this seems not to be the case because the lead levels obtained from AAS analysis of all the samples were all either zero or very low.

Conclusion And Recommendation

The physico-chemical analyses performed on the samples, demonstrated that the physico-chemical quality of the water samples were mostly within the specified limits as stated by WHO and EPA. The health implications of the physico-chemical quality were considered to be of importance on the longterm basis, since these contaminants at the levels at which they occurred in the water samples can accumulate over time. The pH of the samples was found to be acidic. It can be concluded that the same acidic aquifer serves the entire sample area. The pH of water must be controlled through increasing alkalinity and calcium levels since acidic water tends to be corrosive and can dissolve metal fittings and cement into water, leading to contamination. Also, the nature of construction materials that have been used and that will be used in the future should be reviewed to ensure that it can withstand the acidity of the water. It was not in the scope of this research to determine the size of the underground water aquifer, but it is recommended therefore that the size of the underground aquifer be determined in other to ascertain the extent to which the recommendations for remediation proposed herein would be implemented. The nitrate levels of 2 samples were also found to exceed the acceptable limit (50 mg/L as nitrate ion), while one sample had 50 mg/L as its value. It is recommended that biological denitrification for surface water and ion exchange for ground water is employed in order to reduce the nitrate levels.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.

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Iris Publishers - World Journal of Agriculture and Soil Science (WJASS)

A Review on the Effect of Rooting Media on Rooting and Growth of Cutting Propagated Grape (Vitis vinifera L)

Authored by Abera Jaleta

Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the important commercial subtropical vine crops grown all over the world except at a few places with high altitude and extreme temperature [1]. It is native to the Mediterranean region, central Europe, and southwestern Asia, from Morocco and Portugal north to southern Germany and east to northern Iran. It belongs to the family Vitaceae, is one of the oldest, most extensively cultivated and economically significant fruit crops in the world [2,3].

The three major uses of grapes are; wine making, fresh fruit (table grapes) and dried fruit (raisins) production. It can be used for making wine, jam, juice, jelly, grape seed extract, ethanol, raisins, vinegar, grape seed oil, tartaric acid, fertilizer, grape derived antioxidant compounds (polyphenols, resveratrol) and etc. Grape also associated with prevention of cancer, heart disease, high blood pressure, allergies, diabetes, constipation etc. [4].

It is a vine crop and trained on wires on both sides of plant. It is a short duration crop and consumed as fresh and in dried form [5]. Global grape production currently amounts to more than 75 million metric tons per year. Today there are over 18 million acres of cultivated vineyards worldwide. The top 5 grape producing counties are China, Italy, United States, France and Spain respectively, while Ethiopia is 77th in the world. In Ethiopia, the total grape production, harvested area and yield of grape in the year 2014 was reached 5118 tones, 2544 ha and 20123 hectogram ha-1, respectively [6].

Grape propagation for commercial vineyards includes the use of cuttings, rooting, budding, layers and grafts [7]. Cutting is one of the extensively practiced means of vegetative propagation of plants in horticulture industry [8] and is the most important practices in viticulture [9]. It has many advantages such as being economical [1], require a limited space, simple [8,10], rapid for dissemination of selected clones or new varieties resulting from breeding programs [8,11]. It maintains true to type varietal characteristics [7,12,13]. Cutting is highly practical and economically important. It is used extensively to propagate ornamental plants, including deciduous types, broad-leaved evergreens and coniferous forms. Fruits such as grapes and figs have been propagated in this manner since ancient times [14]. Grapevines are very easy to grow from cuttings [8,13]. It is well known that in comparison to soft wood cuttings, grapes are generally propagated through hardwood cuttings [8]. The main reasons are due to its highest success rate [9,15] without the use of special rooting technique, least expensive and easiest method of vegetative propagation [12,13,16]. Cuttings can also be made from the stem, modified stem, roots or leaves [13].

Rooting media is one of the most important factors for rooted cutting production. It is one of the factors affecting rooting and growth of grape cuttings [4]. Types of media have significantly influenced the rooting and vegetative growth of cuttings. Growing media should be considered an essential part of the propagation system because rooting competency depends on the type of medium used. Rooting medium directly effect on quality and percentage of rooting [5]. Both the biological and physico-chemical characteristics of a potting medium affect plant and root growth [4]. It is known that good growth media provides a reservoir for plant nutrients, hold plant available water, and provide a means for gas exchange and good anchorage for the plants [17].

Objectives

• To review the effect of different growth media on rooting percentage, roots and shoot growth performance of grape cutting.

• To identify research gap on the effect of growth media on rooting and required growth performance of grape cutting.

Review on the Effect of Media on Rooting and Growth of Cuttings of Grape

The quality of potting mixes and field nursery soils is critical to cutting establishment [13]. It is known that good growth media provides a reservoir for plant nutrients, hold plant available water, and provide a means for gas exchange and good anchorage for the plants [17-19]. Lack of one or more of these beneficial characteristics leads to lower rooting percentage of cuttings or undesirable root shape and or form [18]. Thus, growers typically use peat, perlite, vermiculite, sand, fallow land and organic and inorganic composted materials to prepare nutritious potting mixtures [20]. Review on the effect of media on rooting and root growth parameters of grape cutting

Effect of media on rooting percentage of grape cutting: Factors affecting rooting of grape cuttings can be internal or external factors. Internal factors affecting rooting of cuttings include the amount of stored food in cuttings, the age and maturity of tissue, the formation of callus and adventitious roots and the presence of leaves and buds on cuttings. The external factors include rooting media, chemical and hormone treatments, light, temperature, mechanical treatment and mist spray [14]. Many papers present studies on the effect of various media for rooting cuttings. Vermiculite, perlite, and other products have been and are being tested with a view of improving plant propagation methods [14].

Many mixtures have been used as media for propagation. Cuttings of some plants which root poorly in sand, often root satisfactorily in mixtures of equal volumes of sand and peat. A mixture of equal parts of peat and sawdust was satisfactory for rooting of grape. A mixture which contained 1 part of peat, 1 part of sand, and 1 part of sawdust also proved satisfactory [21]. Any medium which holds moisture and supplies air is satisfactory. However, different media cause variations in root quality [22]. Of 43 kinds of plants propagated by stem cuttings, 30 produced finer and more flexible roots in peat moss than in sand due to the reduced aeration and increased moisture [14]. When cuttings are rooted in sand and peat moss or perlite and peat moss, the roots developed are well branched, slender and flexible, a type much more suited for digging and repotting [23]. Among some of the rooting media used in Ghana is a mixture of equal parts of coarse river sand and composted oil palm fiber. The fiber holds moisture while the sand keeps the mixture open and well aerated [24].

Tsipouridis et al. [25] studied on five rooting substrates (perlite (1-5 mm), peat, perlite + peat (50:50 %), sand and perlite (covered cuttings were additionally enclosed in a polyethylene bag)) and found rooting the 50:50 peats perlite mixtures gave a reasonable amount. Dvin et al. [18] also reported that using of coco peat + perlite media resulted in higher percentage of cuttings that rooted. Ibrahim [24], showed that sand/ fiber mixture gave a higher percentage of rooting success and produced stronger and more fibrous roots than sand, fiber or peat moss alone.

Muhammad et al. [5] observed that the statistical analysis depicts significance of potting media on the rooting percentage (P<0.05). CSb and CSBCP potting media had more than 70% rooting in comparison to CS and CSFYM potting media with less than 50%. The highest mean rooting percentage (84.44) was observed from grape cuttings grown in potting media having mixture of canal silt (25%), bagasse (50%) and coco peat (25%).

Research done by Krishna [1] as in (Table 1) better rooting obtained from sand + 10 or 20% coco peat for hardwood cuttings of both Dogridge and 1613C. While in case of soft wood cuttings, sand + 10% coco peat recorded significantly higher percentage of rooting in both varieties (Table 1). Ferrer et al. [26] reported that, percentage rooting was highest in sand (84.9), followed by soil (37.7) and the soil + sand mix (27.8). But the root development in sand was poor and the plants were not commercially acceptable. While the cuttings rooted in soil + sand mix produced better root and shoot development.

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Nutritional quality of organic rice grown on organic composts

Using organic nutrient resources in improving crop quality can be a feasible alternative to traditional farming. Organic farming promotes the reduction of agrochemicals and boosts soil conservation principles. where to buy organic rice Although crop quality depends on several factors, among which the nutrient origin plays a great role, there's minimal information available on how rice quality is influenced by various organic composts. Here we climbed aromatic rice on two levels of four natural composts made from kudzu vine (Pueraria lobata) at 5 and 10 Mg ha−1, Urtica sp. (nettle) in 5 and 10 Mg ha−1, Lantana sp. We studied the impact of these organic sources on nutrient and physico-chemical properties, and on the cooking quality of the rice, using a fertilized, chemical remedy as positive control. earth promise organic riceOur results reveal that grain yield was considerably influenced by the supply of major plant nutrients. The highest rice yield of 4.0 Mg ha−1 has been obtained from the inorganically fertilized treatment. The protein content in grains was the highest, 8.98%, at the inorganic treatment (100:60:40 kg N, P, K ha−1) and cheapest, 7.55 percent, in the control. Among herbal remedies, farmyard manure at 10 Mg ha−1 contributed the least in relation to the protein content of the rice (7.78%). Significantly higher iron content, of 52.2 μg gram −1, has been recorded with natural fertilization than inorganic fertilization (42.1 μg Fe gram −1). However, inorganic fertilization has been superior in relation to aluminum content, of 4.1 μg Fe g−1, compared with organic treatments: organic brown rice stock3.1--4.0 μg Fe g−1. Quality attributes indicated that cooked kernel length was positively correlated with all the kernel elongation ratio. The outcomes of the study imply that organic nutrient sources may perform comparatively well as regards compound and physico-chemical properties, and cooking quality of rice, if not better in certain parameters than inorganic fertilization.

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Lupine Publishers| Isotopic Bioinorganic Chemistry of Chemoautotrophs as a Predictor-Regulator for Formation of Metal Deposits and Factor of Weathering

Lupine Publishers| Journal of Oceanography and petrochemical sciences

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The role of chemoautotrophs / lithotrophs in the formation of deposits and weathering is almost universally known, however, the results of this biogeochemical activity and mass transfer mediated by chemoautotrophs are radically different depending on the ionic composition of the medium, the salt conductivity effects and the Purbe diagram of the corresponding conditions of this activity, as well as a number of other physico-chemical Characteristics often not considered as impact factors (for simplifying models). Biogeochemical representations of the early period on which models and kinetic approaches to the analysis of similar processes were based are, by most criteria, phenomenological and "empirical", but do not reveal the essence of the processes occurring on the border of the medium processed by microorganisms and the surface of chemoautotrophs as active agents, that process this medium. Meanwhile, from the point of view of biochemical physics (and, in particular, biological kinetics), the mechanisms realized at the interface or in its diffusion neighborhood are decisive in such cases, since the entry of matter into "microreactor" compartments of biological origin and aggregation with biomineralization, as a rule, occur mediated by the surface of the biomembrane.

From the specificity of chemoautotrophs to chemically different media, it can be correlatively concluded that the properties of the membrane are also different and, at a minimum, do not contradict the conditions of their presence in the natural mineral environment. Obviously, this is directly related to mechanisms of action of the membrane in this medium. Any mechanisms that determine membrane activity in an inorganic medium, by definition, must be the mechanisms of interaction of this medium with the membrane, hence - the mechanisms of interaction of structural units that provide the traffic of inorganic ions through the membrane (transmembrane transport). Such structural units are the ion channels of the cell, or rather their aggregate - the so-called. Channel [1], which provides a balance of transport and specificity in the kinetics of membrane processes. Populations of ion channels are very sensitive not only to the environment, but also to the set of membrane parameters associated with the electrophysiological function [2]; the change in the complex parametrix of the canal of chemoautotrophs leads, on the other hand, to a change in the efficiency of processes near their surface and, as a consequence, to a change in the efficiency of biogeochemical processing of the medium. Separate conditions can not only desensetize the channels [3], but also lead to inhibition or death of cell populations of chemotrophs, which naturally leads to zeroing of the efficiency of biogeochemical processing of the medium due to the zero efficiency of ion channels. Those Ionic channels are known which interact with most elements and interact with the membrane of agents in orogenesis, mineralogenesis, metamorphism (and chemical tafonomia, which determines the preservation of indicative samples in stratigraphy / approximate biomorphological-mediated dating). As examples, we can cite channel structures that interact (in different ways and selectively, although not always absolutely) with: Fe [4], Mg [5], Zn [6,7], Gd [8], La [9], Cs [10], hydrogen sulfate [11], not to mention the generally known calcium, potassium, sodium, and chlorine channels and the possibility of their not absolute selective regulation different from the nominal ions corresponding to the series of substituents and the selectivity functions.

Taking into account the evolutionarily early nature and simple physico-chemical realization of ion-selective channels and selectivity functions, it is possible to assume that canals of autotrophs, including those that did not survive "shadow life", could be considered at rather early stages (for example, corresponding to the genesis and conditions of origin of the jespellites) [12,13]. Taking into account the possibility of isotope fractionation - both carbon [14] and inorganic elements, metals (subjects of competence of metallomics or elementomics [15], respectively), during thebiogeochemical activity of the "planetary microbiota", it is possible to guarantee the participation of the canaloma and lithotroph membranes in the biological fractionation of isotopes during the formation of deposits and weathering the subject of membrane [16] for These cases should be a set of membranes of a population interacting through ion channels and realizing with their help a filtering, sorption and biocatalytic function, and a communication / coordinating mass transfer in a homogeneous medium or a medium that is homogeneous in a certain parameter. The use of the techniques of the MC-patch-clamp [17] and isotopic methods of local fixation of the potential is proposed for the purpose of synchronous measurement of the activity of the prokaryotic canal and the results of their biogeochemical and isotope-fractionating activity [18].

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Study the Physico-Chemical Properties of Sapota (Achras Sapota L.) - Juniper publishers

Journal of Trends in Technical and Scientific Research

Abstract

In the present work, the physical and chemical properties of fresh sapota fruits (Achras sapota L). And the Physical Properties studies such as moisture content (%), length (mm), width (mm), thickness (mm), volume (cc), Sphericity , weight of fruits (g), Bulk density (g/cc), True density (g/cc) and Porosity (g/cc). Chemical properties is TSS °(B), Acidity (%), pH, Reducing sugar (%), Total Sugar (%), Protein (%), Fat (%), Carbohydrate (%), Fiber (%), Color L, a and b.

Moisture content of sapota found to be in the range of 73.07 % wet basis (280.283 % db), the results showed that The length, width and thickness is sapota fruits was found to vary in the ranges from 44.08 to 60.19,37.00 to 49.34 and 41.06 to 52.91 mm, respectively, The volume of the sapota fruits range is 20 to 70 cm3, Sphericity of sapota fruits range is found to be 0.842 to 0.990, average weight of sapota fruits was 52.99±7.the weight of sapota fruits are recorded the range 41.15 to 74.99 (g), Sapota fruits are bulk density was in the range of found 0.341 to 0.414 g/cc, True density of sapota fruits was in the range of found 0.952 to 2.1095 g/cc, The porosity is calculated by the sapota fruits was found in the range of 16.62 to 42.22. chemical properties results shows the The fresh sapota fruits the TSS range is found 17 to 23, Titratable acidity of sapota fruits was in the of range 0.2 to 0.25, pH of sapota fruits range was observed in the range 5.5 to 6.0, Reducing sugar of fresh sapota fruits range was 15 to 17.3, Total sugars of fresh sapota are range between 46 to 52.2.

The fresh Sapota fruit protein is range is 0.6 to 0.80, The carbohydrate of sapota fresh fruits range is 14.3 to 28.31. The fat of Sapota fresh fruits range 0.4 to 1.25, Fibre of sapota was range of 0.42 to 28.31, Colour L values of fresh sapota fruits are range are 57.70 to 72.10, Colour a value of sapota fruits are range found 7.10 to 10.42 and b value of colour in sapota fruits are range comes in 37.26 to 41.91.

Keywords: Sapota fruit, Dimensions, Physical properties, Post-harvest processing.

Introduction

Sapodilla, (Manilkara Zapota L.) which belongs to the family sapotaceae, is underutilized tropical fruits commonly known as “sapota” in India and “chiku” in Malaysia. Immature fruits are hard, gummy and rich in tannin (astringent), while the ripe fruits are soft and juicy, with a sweet taste an attractive range colour, which makes them wonderful dessert fruit [1]. In India it is grown in an area of 82000 ha with 8 tones production at 14.19 tonnes per hectors productivity. Sapota is grown on a commercial basis in India, the Philippines, Srilanka, Malaysia, Mexico, Venezuela, Guatemala and other central American countries [2]. In Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamilnadu and Karnataka states sapota is grown commercially [3]. Raw fruits of sapota are astringed, while ripe fruits are sweet. It is mainly used as dessert fruits bedside many processed products are prepared from sapota namely Halwa, Juice, Milk Shake, Shrikhand, fruit Jam. Mature fruits are used for making mixed fruits jams and provide a valuable source of raw materials for manufacture of industrial glucose, protein and natural fruits jellies. They also are canned as slices [4]. Sapota is a small fruit, generally with a diameter range from 5 to 9 cm with round to egg shaped appearance, and 75- 200 g weight. It consists of a rough brown skin, which enclosed a soft, sweet, light brown to reddish brown flesh. The flesh is often gritty, much like a pear, and which holds three to four flat, smooth black seeds, although some fruits are seedless. Figure 1 shows the sapota fruits and cut sapota fruits. Superior strains have a time smooth texture with a slight fragrant and sweet flavour [5].

Sapota fruits is reported to contain sugar, acids, protein, amino acid, phenolics viz, galic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, leucodelphinidin, and leucodelargonidin and Leucopelargonidin, carotenoids, ascorbic acids, and minerals like potassium, calcium and iron (Selvaraj and Pal) [6-9]. Fruits contains carbohydrate (50.49 g-100 g), protein (0.7 g – 100g), fat (1.1 g – 100g), fibre (2.6g -100g), and minerals nutrient viz. calcium (28mg -100g), iron (2.0mg -100g), phosphorus (27mg -100g), ascorbic acid (6.0mg -100g), Golpalan et al., Size and shape are most often used when describing grains, seeds, fruits and vegetables. Shapes and physical dimensions are important in sorting and sizing of fruits and determination how many fruits can be placed in shipping containers or plastic bags of a given size. Quality difference in fruits, vegetables, grains and seeds can often be detected by differences in density. When fruits and vegetables are transported hydraulically, the design fluid velocities are related to both density and shape [10]. Quality is defined as the absence of defects or degree of excellence and it includes appearance, color, shape, injuries, flavor, taste, aroma, nutritional value and being safe for the consumer [11]. Due to a higher market exigency as for high quality products, the juice and pulp industries have been looking for fruits with better internal and external features, including fruit length and width; fruit weight; pulp, seed and peel percentages per fruit; number of seeds per fruit; seed size and peel diameter; soluble solids (ºBrix); Titratable acidity (%); vitamin C content (mg/100g of fresh fruit); pulp pH and soluble solids/ Titratable acidity ratio. The physical properties affect conveying characteristics of solid materials by air of any sample. Size, shape and physical dimensions of sapota are important in sizing, sorting and other separation processes. Bulk and true densities of sapota are necessary to design the equipment for processing and storing. The porosity of fruits is the most important for packing, pH is used to determine the acidity and alkalinity of the fruits, and TSS is used to determine the amount of sugar concentration. Many studies have been reported on physical properties of fruits such as Apple, Apricot, Banana, Olive, Pomegranate and grape by the researches [12-17]. The literature on physico-chemical properties of sapota is scarce. The present work was undertaken to study the physico-chemical properties of sapota fruits.

Materials and Methods

Moisture content

The moisture content of sapota kalipatti variety fruits was used for the experiments. The moisture content was determined by using a standard hot air oven method [18]. The sapota was cut into slices around 10 to 15 g and slices were kept in pre weighed moisture boxes by using electronic balance of 300 g capacity having the least count of 0.001 g. These samples were kept in hot air oven for 105ºC ± 1ºC for 24 hours. The moisture content (wb%) was determined as equation (1)

2 3 2 1 ( %) 100 w w MoistureContent db w w − = × − ---(1)

Where,

W1 = mass of empty box with lid, g

W2 = mass of box, lid with sample, g

W3= mass of box, lid with sample after 24 hours, g

Dimensions (L, B, T)

The three principal dimensions namely length, width (Diameter) and thickness was measured for each individual sapota along X, Y, and Z axis with the help of Vernier caliper (least count of 0.01mm). The spatial dimensions were measured for 50 fruits and average value has been reported. Geometric mean diameter was calculated by following equation (2)

1 ( ) 3 [( )] g DL B T = × × ---(2)

Where,

Dg = Geometric Mean Diameter in mm

L = Length, mm

B = Breadth, mm

T = Thickness, mm

Sphericity

It is defined as ratio of surface area of sphere having same volume as that of the sapota to the surface area of the sapota [19]. This criterion was used to describe the shape of the sapota. Sphericity of sapota fruit was determined by using equation (3).

13 ()L B T Sphericity L × × = ---(3)

Fruit weight

Samples of sapota were taken and their weights were measured on an electronic weighing machine with the 0.001 kg least count. The maximum, minimum, and average values of these parameters were recorded and standard deviation of the mean values was tabulated.

Fruit volume

A 1000 ml measuring cylinder was used for measurement of fruit volume. Measuring cylinder was filled with water up to 500 ml. the fruit is dropped in the measuring cylinder. The initial volume before placed was recorded for fruit. The volume change after dropping the fruit in to the cylinder was recorded. The measurement was repeated 10 times the change in volume was reported as the volume of fruit. The average of 10 measurement were reported as a fruits volume using equation,

v FB A = − ---(4)

Where,

Fv = fruit volume,

A = Initial level of water in the measuring cylinder, ml

B= final level of water in the measuring cylinder, ml

Bulk density

The bulk density was determined by using the mass/volume relationship. Sapota were filled in gunny bag having volume (100cm×60cm×30cm). Total mass of the sapota were measured with the electronic balance with accuracy of 0.01 g. Fruit density (kg/m3) was calculated by using the following equation (5). The experiments were repeated with five times and average value was reported. The bulk density of sapota fruit was determined by using following formula as suggested by Mohasnin.

b M P V = ---(5)

Where,

Pb= bulk density (kg/m3),

M = bulk mass of fruit (kg), and

V = volume of Gunny bag (100cm×60cm ×30cm).

True density

The true density of sapota fruit was determined by using toluene displacement method. Weight of single sapota fruit was taken with electronic precision balance with least count 0.001 g and fruit was immersed carefully into measuring cylinder partially filled with toluene. The volume of toluene displaced by the fruit was noted down. The true density was calculated by using following equation (6).

t td W P V = ---(6)

Where,

Pt = True density g/cc,

Vtd= volume of cylinder content (cc).

W= Wight of sapota fruits

Porosity

The porosity of sapota was computed from the value of bulk density and true density using relationship.

100 Truedensity Bulk density Porosity Truedensity − = × ---(7)

Total Soluble Solids⁰ (BRIX)

Total soluble solids sapota pulps were determined using Refractometer (M/s. Atago, Japan) at atmospheric temperature. The equipment was calibrated with distilled water and the TSS of the Sapota juice was determined. The experiment was replicated three times. The total soluble solid content of fruit samples was determined by a digital Refractometer (Kyoto Company, Kyoto, Japan).

Titratable Acidity

The Titratable acidity of sapota fruit pulp was determined as per the procedure Ranganna. A known quantity of sample was blended in mortar and pestle with 20-25 ml distilled water. It was then transferred to 100 ml volumetric flask, made up the volume and filtered. A known volume of aliquot (10ml) was titrated against 0.1N sodium hydroxide (NAOH) solution using phenolphthalein as an indicator (Ranganna). The acidity was calculated as given below and the results were expressed as percent anhydrous citric acid. The three replications were carried out and the average readings were reported.

(%) 10 1000 N T E Titratableacidity W V× × = × × × ---(8)

Where,

N = normality of alkali

T = titrate reading

E = equivalent mass of acid, g

W = weight of the sample, g

V = total volume of the sample, g

pH of sapota was measured using digital pH meter. The digital pH meter is firstly calibrated by using 4 pH and 7 pH buffer solution. The electrode was washed with distilled water and blot led with tissue paper. 10 ml of sapota juice was taken in beaker, and then the tip of electrode and temperature probe was then submerged in to the sample. The pH reading display on the primary LCD and temperature on secondary one. The pH of fresh sapota was determined for three replications. The chemical properties such as pH of meddler fruit were determined according to the methods presented by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists.

Reducing Sugar

The reducing sugar of sapota pulp was estimated by using Lane and Eynon Method with modifications reported by Ranganna. A known weight of Sapota slices were crushed with distilled water using lead acetate (45%) for precipitation of extraneous material and potassium oxalate (22%) to de-lead the solution. This lead free extract was used to estimate reducing sugars titrating against standard Fehling mixture (Fehling ‘A’ and ‘B’ in equal proportion) using methylene blue as an indicator to brick red end point. The three replication were carried out and the average reading was reported.

100 % ' volume prepared Reducing sugar GV of fehling s solution burette reading initial volume = × --- (9)

Where,

GV= Glucose value

Total Sugar

Total sugars of sapota pulp estimated by same procedure of reducing sugar after acid hydrolysis of an aliquot of deleaded sample with 50 percent of hydrochloric acid followed by neutralization with sodium hydroxide (40%) and calculated as below. The experiment was repeated three times to get the replication.

(%) 100 Factor Dilution Total sugar Titre reading Weight of sample × = × × ---(10)

Colour

The fresh sapota fruit pulp was used to measure the colour value by using colorimeter (Konica minotta, Japan model-Meter CR-400). The equipment was calibrated against standard white tile. Around 20 g pulp of sapota was taken in the glass cup; the cup was placed on the aperture of the instrument. The colour was recorded in terms of L= lightness (100) to darkness (0); a = Redness (+60) to Greeness (-60); b= yellowness (+60) to blueness (-60).

Protein

The protein content of fresh sapota fruits was determined by Lowry’s Method (Lowry et al.,) using spectrophotometer (Make: Systronics- UV Visible spectrophotometer; Ahmadabad; Model No: 106). In this method, 1 g sapota pulp was mixed with 5 ml of alkaline solution which was prepared from 50 ml of Part one (2% sodium carbonate in 0.1 N NaOH) solution and 1 ml of part two (0.5% copper sulphate in 1% sodium potassium tartarate) solution. Mixed solution i.e. part one and part two was rapidly diluted with folin-ciocalteu reagent. After 30 min, sample was loaded in the cuvet of spectrophotometer upto >3/4 of its level. The absorbance was read against standard protein solution at 750nm. Absorbance is recorded as protein content.

Fat

Fat of sapota fresh fruit pulp was determined using soxhlet fat extraction system (AOAC) by using Soxhlet apparatus (Make: Elico, Hyderabad). In this method, initially weight of empty flask was weighed. 2 g sapota pulp wrapped in filter paper was siphoned for 9-12 times with the petroleum ether in soxhlet apparatus. After removing assembly, evaporation of petroleum ether was allowed by heating. Residue remained at the bottom of the flask and was reweighed with flask. The quantity of residue was determined as fat content of sapota pulp.

Carbohydrate

The carbohydrate from sapota pulp was estimated by anthrone method in which prepared a series of Glucose solution and distilled water in the ratio (0:1; 0.2:0.8; 0.4:0.6; 0.6:0.4; 0.8:0.2; and 1:0) by using spectrophotometer. One gram ground sapota pulp was mixed with 5 ml of 2.5 N HCL and then heated for 3 h in water bath. The mixture was allowed to cool for 1.3 h, and it is added with sodium carbonate till effervescence stops. It is seen by naked eyes. After filtration, anthrone reagent (2 g anthrone powder 100 ml H2SO4) was added in filtered solution. The mixture was heated for 8 min and allowed to cool. The solution was taken in the cuvette of spectrophotometer, and absorbance was recorded at 630 nm. A graph was plotted, i.e., absorbance versus concentration (glucose stock: distilled water), and concentration of unknown sample was measured by using formula,

% Absorbanceof unknown Concentrationof standard Concentration Absorbanceof standard − = ---(11)

Results and Discussion

Table 1 shows the physical properties of sapota fruits & Table 2 shows the chemical properties of sapota fruits

Moisture content

Moisture content of sapota found to be in the range of 73.07 % wet basis (280.283 % db). The result was in general agreement with the result obtained for fresh sapota fruits by pawar et al., which having range is 69.80% to 75.80 % (wb) for kalipatti and Athmaselvi et al., reported the moisture content of sapota verity kalipatti 77.93% (wb).

Dimension

The length, width and thickness is sapota fruits was found to vary in the ranges from 44.08 to 60.19, 37.00 to 49.34 and 41.06 to 52.91 mm, respectively. The Average values of dimension in terms of length, width and thickness were found to be 50.29±4.15, 42.78±3.12 and 46.53±3.130 mm, respectively. The shape of sapota fruit may be classified as Eleptical as per classification given by Mohsenin [19]. The result were in general agreement with the result obtained for fresh sapota fruits by Gupta et al., 50.10 to 62.19, 31.90 to 42.16 and 27.40 to 41.42. And Athmaselvi et al., 41.51, 42.16 and 40.3.

Fruit volume

The volume of the sapota fruits range is 20 to 70 cm3 and average volume are found of sapota is 43.2±15.19cm3.). The result was in general agreement with the result obtained for fresh sapota fruits by Gupta et al., is 408.3 to 587.7 (cc).

Sphericity

The Sphericity of sapota fruits range is found to be 0.842 to 0.990 and average value is 0.908±0.052 .and the shape of sapota fruit may be classified as elliptical as per classification given by Mohsenin [19]. The results were in general agreement with the result obtained for fresh sapota fruits by Athmaselvi et al., is 0.957.

Fruits weight

The average weight of sapota fruits was 52.99±7.the weight of sapota fruits are recorded the range 41.15 to 74.99 (g). The result reported in literature for fresh sapota fruits by Gupta et al., range of 38.20 to 55.50 (g) verities in sapota kalipatti and Athmaselvi et al., was 48.42 kalipatti [20] reported average fruits weight of sapota was 55.6 verities cricket boll (g). And pawar et al., reported the sapota fruits weight range of 60.66 to 85.42 (g) for kalipatti.

Bulk density

Sapota fruits are bulk density was in the range of found0.341 to 0.414g/cc and the average value of the bulk density of sapota was 0.384±0.0321g/cc [21]. The result were in general agreement with the result obtained for fresh sapota fruits by Gupta et al., and Athmaselvi et al., range is 0.891 to 0.912 g/cc, 0.61 g/cm3.

True density

True density of sapota fruits was in the range of found 0.952 to 2.1095 g/cc. and average true density is sapota 1.323±0.40 g/cc [22]. The result were in general agreement with the result obtained for fresh sapota fruits by Gupta et al., for kalipatti and Athmaselvi et al., range is 1.013 to 1.055 g/cc and 1.12 g/cm3.

Porosity

The porosity is calculated by the sapota fruits was found in the range of 16.62 to 42.22 and average value of porosity is31.492±8.45 [23]. The result were in general agreement with the result obtained for fresh sapota fruits by Gupta et al., and Athmaselvi et al., range is 12.82 to 13.62. And 0.35 g/cm3.

TSS

The fresh sapota fruits the TSS range is found 17 to 23 and average value of sapota fruits is 19.45±1.40. The result were in general agreement with the result obtained for fresh sapota fruits by Pawar et al., which having range is 19.00°B to 23.60°B reported TSS of sapota average 24°B. Gupta et al., reported TSS of sapota average range 17°B to 22°B [20].

Titratable Acidity

The Titratable acidity of sapota fruits was in the of range 0.2 to 0.25, the average Titratable acidity is 0.16±0.14. The result were in general agreement with the result obtained for fresh sapota fruits by Pawar et al., which having range is 0.10 % to 0.23%.

The pH of sapota fruits range was observed in the range 5.5 to 6.0 and average pH is 5.72 ± 0.14. The result were in general agreement with the result obtained for fresh sapota fruits by Pawar et al., which having range is 5.30 to 6.30. Gupta et al., range 5.2 to 5.7 [24].

Reducing sugar

Reducing sugar of fresh sapota fruits range was 15 to 17.3, average reducing sugar are 16.3±1.23. The reducing sugar reported for fresh sapota fruits by Pawar et al., was in the range of 8.90 % to 11.08 %. And Take et al., average 8.91 %. Sawant reported the reducing sugar content of sapota at ripe stage was 8.28-13.86%.

Total sugar

Total sugars of fresh sapota are range between 46 to 52.2 and average total sugar of fresh sapota fruits 48.50±1.58. The result were in general agreement with the result obtained for fresh sapota fruits by Pawar et al., which having range is 14.40% to 18.20% verities kalipatti [20] reported average total sugar 17.57% evaluated ten cultivar of sapota and noticed variation from 7.0 to 12.3 per cent in total sugar [7]. Rao et al., observed that in sapota fruit contained 12.0 per cent total sugar.

Protein

The fresh Sapota fruit protein is range is 0.6 to 0.80 and average value of protein is 0.48±0.13. The Protein content reported in literature for sapota fruits was 0.70 and 0.67. Ganjyal et al., 0.70 And Swaminathan is 0.70 average 0.6 [20].

Fat

The fat of Sapota fresh fruits range 0.4 to 1.25 and average fat value is 0.49±0.44. The fat content of sapota fruits reported in literature was 1.10, 1.13 and 1.25 (Ganjyal et al., Swaminathan) [20].

Carbohydrate

The carbohydrate of sapota fresh fruits range is 14.3 to 28.31 and average carbohydrate is 19.50±3.47. The result were in general agreement with the result obtained for fresh sapota fruits by Ganjyal et al., 21.40. average 28.31 [20].

Fibre

Fibre of sapota was range of 0.42 to 28.31 and average fibre is 2.50±0.92. The result were in general agreement with the result obtained for fresh sapota fruits by Kumari et al., 2.60.

Colour

Colour L values of fresh sapota fruits are range are 57.70 to 72.10 and average L value is 71.10±2.43. Sapota a value of sapota fruits are range found 7.10 to 10.42 and average a value of sapota is 7.14±0.02. And b value of colour in sapota fruits are range comes in 37.26 to 41.91 and average value is b is 40.50±0.03 [25].

Conclusion

Moisture content of sapota found to be in the range of 73.07 % wet basis (280.283 % db). And the length, width and thickness is sapota fruits was found to vary in the ranges from 44.08 to 60.19, 37.00 to 49.34 and 41.06 to 52.91 mm, respectively, The volume of the sapota fruits range is 20 to 70 cm3and average volume are found of sapota is 43.2±15.19cm3.The Sphericity of sapota fruits range is found to be 0.842 to 0.990 and average value is 0.908±0.052. The average weight of sapota fruits was 52.99±7. the weight of sapota fruits are recorded the range 41.15 to 74.99 (g). Sapota fruits are bulk density was in the range of found 0.341 to 0.414 g/cc and the average value of the bulk density of sapota was 0.384±0.0321 g/cc. True density of sapota fruits was in the range of found 0.952 to 2.1095 g/cc. and average true density is sapota1.323±0.40 g/cc. The porosity is calculated by the sapota fruits was found in the range of 16.62 to 42.22 and average value of porosity is 31.492±8.45. And some chemical properties of sapota fruits are the fresh sapota fruits the TSS range is found 17 to 23. The Titratable acidity of sapota fruits was in the of range 0.2 to 0.25, The pH of sapota fruits range was observed in the range 5.5 to 6.0, Reducing sugar of fresh sapota fruits range was 15 to 17.3, Total sugars of fresh sapota are range between 46 to 52.2, The fresh Sapota fruit protein is range is 0.6 to 0.80. and the fat of Sapota fresh fruits range 0.4 to 1.25, The carbohydrate of sapota fresh fruits range is 14.3 to 28.31 and Fibre of sapota was range of 0.42 to 28.31, Colour L values of fresh sapota fruits are range are 57.70 to 72.10 and a value of sapota fruits are range found 7.10 to 10.42.

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