#java to ceylon

[dayofethnicityorreligion]

The Javanese in Sri Lanka represent a small yet historically and culturally significant ethnic minority group whose roots trace back to the island of Java in modern-day Indonesia. While today their numbers are relatively modest, their legacy reveals a complex tapestry of colonial-era migration, religious and cultural transformation, and assimilation within the broader Moor and Malay communities of Sri Lanka. The Javanese presence in Sri Lanka is deeply interwoven with the dynamics of European colonialism in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean world, particularly during the Dutch and British periods. Despite the limited size of the community, their influence has been disproportionately rich in terms of religious practice, cultural retention, and social history.

The migration of Javanese individuals to Sri Lanka began primarily during the period of Dutch colonial rule in the Indian Ocean, particularly in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or VOC), which had consolidated control over both Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka) and the Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia), often transferred populations across its colonial holdings for administrative, military, and punitive purposes.

A significant portion of the Javanese population in Sri Lanka arrived not as voluntary migrants but as political exiles, slaves, or convicts. Many were members of the Javanese aristocracy or resistance leaders who opposed Dutch rule. These individuals, deemed a threat to colonial control, were exiled from Java to Dutch colonial outposts, including Sri Lanka. One of the most notable cases is that of Prince Susuhunan Pakubuwono II of Surakarta’s entourage and other noble figures who were exiled for their roles in uprisings or suspected subversion. Alongside these elites were soldiers and laborers, including artisans and religious figures, who were brought to Ceylon to serve in various capacities under Dutch command.

This forced migration created a diaspora community that was geographically dislocated but culturally vibrant, maintaining ties to Javanese customs, language, and especially Islam. The migration of Javanese to Sri Lanka also included people from other parts of the Indonesian archipelago, such as Madura and Sumatra, further enriching the ethnic mosaic that would come to be associated with the Sri Lankan Malays, among whom the Javanese would be culturally subsumed over time.

Over the centuries, the Javanese in Sri Lanka were gradually absorbed into the broader "Malay" community—a category that includes peoples from the Malay Archipelago brought to Sri Lanka during the Dutch and British colonial periods. This umbrella term has obscured the distinct ethnic identities of Javanese, Bugis, and other Southeast Asian groups, but it has also provided a collective identity that allowed these migrants and their descendants to maintain a degree of cultural cohesion.

The Malays in Sri Lanka, including those of Javanese descent, primarily settled in the coastal and urban areas of the Western and Southern provinces, including Colombo, Kandy, Hambantota, and Galle. These settlements were often established near colonial administrative centers or military installations where Malays served as soldiers in colonial militias, police, and other service positions.

Javanese linguistic influence in Sri Lanka has largely receded, with Malay and Sinhala being more commonly spoken among descendants. However, vestiges of Javanese vocabulary, particularly in ritual contexts and family heritage, persist in some Malay households. The use of Javanese honorifics, titles, and naming conventions was once common among elite Javanese families in Sri Lanka, especially those descended from nobility.

Religion has played a central role in preserving Javanese identity in Sri Lanka. The majority of Javanese migrants were Muslim, and their Islamic practices aligned with the broader Malay community, which facilitated communal integration. However, the form of Islam practiced by the Javanese often retained elements of Javanese religious culture, including Sufi mysticism and syncretic rituals rooted in pre-Islamic traditions.

Some of the earliest mosques established by the Malays and Javanese in Sri Lanka became centers of religious learning and cultural preservation. These institutions often taught Arabic, Malay, and basic Javanese texts, especially during the 18th and 19th centuries. The Mawlid celebrations, communal prayer sessions, and recitations often featured uniquely Javanese Islamic chants and devotional literature. In particular, Javanese-style Qur'anic recitation and religious poetry—such as syair—were prominent in religious festivities.

Traditional Javanese dress, culinary practices, and ritual customs survived in modified forms. For example, dishes such as "nasi goreng," "sambal," and "satay" made their way into the broader Sri Lankan Malay culinary tradition, although often with localized ingredients. Celebrations such as weddings, coming-of-age ceremonies, and religious festivals still bear traces of Javanese customs, such as batik garments, gamelan-inspired musical rhythms, and traditional Javanese court etiquette.

During the colonial period, Javanese-descended individuals, like other Malays, held positions in the colonial military and police forces. They were considered reliable by the Dutch and later the British due to their perceived loyalty and martial skill. These roles afforded some degree of upward mobility, though they remained socially marginalized compared to the majority Sinhalese and Tamil populations.

In post-independence Sri Lanka, the Javanese community—largely merged into the Malays—has maintained a modest but active presence in political, social, and religious spheres. Malay organizations such as the Sri Lanka Malay Confederation and local mosques have played crucial roles in advocating for minority rights and preserving cultural heritage. While the Javanese identity is often subsumed under the Malay label, some families continue to preserve genealogies and oral histories that trace their roots specifically to Java.

Javanese Sri Lankans have occasionally served as bridges between Sri Lanka and Indonesia, particularly in diplomatic and cultural exchanges. The Indonesian Embassy in Colombo has supported cultural preservation efforts and highlighted the shared heritage between the two countries, sometimes hosting events featuring Javanese dance, music, and cuisine to reconnect diasporic communities with their ancestral culture.

As with many small diaspora communities, assimilation, intermarriage, and modern urbanization have contributed to the erosion of a distinct Javanese identity in Sri Lanka. The younger generation is often more integrated into Sinhala or Tamil linguistic and cultural spheres, and many no longer speak Malay, let alone Javanese. Yet, there is a growing recognition among scholars and cultural activists of the need to document and preserve this unique historical legacy.

Academic interest in the Javanese of Sri Lanka has increased in recent decades, particularly within the fields of Southeast Asian studies, Islamic history, and migration studies. Researchers have focused on archival materials from the VOC, Dutch legal records, family trees, oral traditions, and religious texts to reconstruct the history of Javanese migration and settlement. These studies reveal a community that, while numerically small, made a meaningful contribution to Sri Lanka’s multicultural heritage.

Efforts to preserve the legacy of Javanese Sri Lankans have also included community-based oral history projects, digital archiving of old photographs and documents, and collaborative projects between Sri Lankan Malays and Indonesian cultural organizations. The story of the Javanese in Sri Lanka is increasingly seen not just as a local phenomenon, but as part of a broader narrative of Indian Ocean migrations and the transnational histories of Islam and colonialism.

The Javanese in Sri Lanka represent a microcosm of the broader diasporic experiences shaped by colonialism, forced migration, and cultural resilience. Though many have been absorbed into the larger Malay community, the distinct historical and cultural contributions of Javanese Sri Lankans remain an important part of the island’s diverse social fabric. Their legacy offers insight into the complexities of identity, heritage, and survival in the context of displacement and assimilation. As modern efforts to preserve this heritage grow, the story of the Javanese in Sri Lanka continues to enrich understandings of both Sri Lankan and Southeast Asian history.

[fatehbaz]

“Dutch King apologizes for Netherlands’ role in slavery.”

The Dutch/Netherlands abducted slaves from West Africa; hosted the Dutch West India Company; operated an extensive profitable sugar plantation industry built on slave labor; and established colonies in the greater Caribbean region including sites at Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten, Bonaire, and the adjacent “Wild Coast” (land between the Orinoco and Amazon rivers, including Guyana and Suriname). Many of these places remained official colonies until between the 1950s and 1990s.

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Scholarship on resistance to Dutch practices of slavery, colonialism, and imperialism in the Caribbean:

“Decolonization, Otherness, and the Neglect of the Dutch Caribbean in Caribbean Studies.” Margo Groenewoud. Small Axe. 2021.

“Women’s mobilizations in the Dutch Antilles (Curaçao and Aruba, 1946-1993).” Margo Groenewoud. Clio. Women, Gender, History No. 50. 2019.

“Black Power, Popular Revolt, and Decolonization in the Dutch Caribbean.” Gert Oostindie. In: Black Power in the Caribbean. Edited by Kate Quinn. 2014.

“History Brought Home: Postcolonial Migrations and the Dutch Rediscovery of Slavery.” Gert Oostindie. In: Post-Colonial Immigrants and Identity Formations in the Netherlands. Edited by Ulbe Bosma. 2012.

“Other Radicals: Anton de Kom and the Caribbean Intellectual Tradition.” Wayne Modest and Susan Legene. Small Axe. 2023.

Di ki manera? A Social History of Afro-Curaçaoans, 1863-1917. Rosemary Allen. 2007.

Creolization and Contraband: Curaçao in the Early Modern Atlantic World. Linda Rupert. 2012.

“The Empire Writes Back: David Nassy and Jewish Creole Historiography in Colonial Suriname.” Sina Rauschenbach. The Sephardic Atlantic: Colonial Histories and Postcolonial Perspectives. 2018.

“The Scholarly Atlantic: Circuits of Knowledge Between Britain, the Dutch Republic and the Americas in the Eighteenth Century.” Karel Davids. 2014. And: “Paramaribo as Dutch and Atlantic Nodal Point, 1640-1795.” Karwan Fatah-Black. 2014. And: Dutch Atlantic Connections, 1680-1800: Linking Empires, Bridging Borders. Edited by Gert Oostindie and Jessica V. Roitman. 2014.

Decolonising the Caribbean: Dutch Policies in a Comparative Perspective. Gert Oostindie and Inge Klinkers. 2003. And: “Head versus heart: The ambiguities of non-sovereignties in the Dutch Caribbean.” Wouter Veenendaal and Gert Oostindie. Regional & Federal Studies 28(4). August 2017.

Tambú: Curaçao’s African-Caribbean Ritual and the Politics of Memory. Nanette de Jong. 2012.

“More Relevant Than Ever: We Slaves of Suriname Today.” Mitchell Esajas. Small Axe. 2023.

“The Forgotten Colonies of Essequibo and Demerara, 1700-1814.” Eric Willem van der Oest. In: Riches from Atlantic Commerce: Dutch Transatlantic Trade and Shipping, 1585-1817. 2003.

“Conjuring Futures: Culture and Decolonization in the Dutch Caribbean, 1948-1975.” Chelsea Shields. Historical Reflections / Reflexions Historiques Vol. 45 No. 2. Summer 2019.

“’A Mass of Mestiezen, Castiezen, and Mulatten’: Fear, Freedom, and People of Color in the Dutch Antilles, 1750-1850.” Jessica Vance Roitman. Atlantic Studies 14, no. 3. 2017.

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This list only covers the Caribbean.

But outside of the region, there is also the legacy of the Dutch East India Company; over 250 years of Dutch slavers and merchants in Gold Coast and wider West Africa; about 200 years of Dutch control in Bengal (the same region which would later become an engine of the British Empire’s colonial wealth extraction); over a century of Dutch control in Sri Lanka/Ceylon; Dutch operation of the so-called “Cultivation System” (”Cultuurstelsei”) in the nineteenth century; Dutch enforcement of brutal forced labor regimes at sugar plantations in Java, which relied on de facto indentured laborers who were forced to sign contracts or obligated to pay off debt and were “shipped in” from other islands and elsewhere in Southeast Asia (a system existing into the twentieth century); the “Coolie Ordinance” (”Koelieordonnanties”) laws of 1880 which allowed plantation owners to administer punishments against disobedient workers, resulting in whippings, electrocutions, and other cruel tortures (and this penal code was in effect until 1931); and colonization of Indonesian islands including Sumatra and Borneo, which remained official colonies of the Netherlands until the 1940s.

[thoughtportal]

The first large-scale Asian–African or Afro–Asian Conference (Indonesian: Konferensi Asia–Afrika), also known as the Bandung Conference, was a meeting of Asian and African states, most of which were newly independent, which took place on 18–24 April 1955 in Bandung, West Java, Indonesia.[1] The twenty-nine countries that participated represented a total population of 1.5 billion people, 54% of the world's population.[2] The conference was organized by Indonesia, Burma (Myanmar), India, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and Pakistan and was coordinated by Ruslan Abdulgani, secretary general of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia.

The conference's stated aims were to promote Afro-Asian economic and cultural cooperation and to oppose colonialism or neocolonialism by any nation. The conference was a step towards the eventual creation of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) yet the two initiatives ran in parallel during the 1960s, even coming in confrontation with one another prior to the 2nd Cairo NAM Conference in 1964.[3]

In 2005, on the 50th anniversary of the original conference, leaders from Asian and African countries met in Jakarta and Bandung to launch the New Asian–African Strategic Partnership (NAASP). They pledged to promote political, economic, and cultural cooperation between the two continents.[citation needed]

video {jason chu}

[reasoningdaily]

King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa

King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa

In the late 1890s, Edmund Dene Morel, a young British shipping company agent, noticed something strange about the cargoes of his company's ships as they arrived from and departed for the Congo, Leopold II's vast new African colony. Incoming ships were crammed with valuable ivory and rubber. Outbound ships carried little more than soldiers and firearms.

Correctly concluding that only slave labor on a vast scale could account for these cargoes, Morel resigned from his company and almost singlehandedly made Leopold's slave-labor regime the premier human rights story in the world. Thousands of people packed hundreds of meetings throughout the United States and Europe to learn about Congo atrocities. Two courageous black Americans - George Washington Williams and William Sheppard - risked much to bring evidence to the outside world. Roger Casement, later hanged by Britain as a traitor, conducted an eye-opening investigation of the Congo River stations.

Sailing into the middle of the story was a young steamboat officer named Joseph Conrad. And looming over all was Leopold II, King of the Belgians, sole owner of the only private colony in the world.

Reviewer Comment:

This is a tragic history of the Belgian Congo at the turn of the 19th century as the Scramble for Africa began. Adam Hochschild is an American writer and journalist for the New Yorker, NY Times, NY Review of Books and Times Literary Supplement. His work has combined history with human rights advocacy. The events in this book are a shameful chapter in the era of colonialism, of which there were many. It is portrait of Leopold likely to inspire loathing in any who reads it. Beside an account of a colony, it archives the lives of activists who fought to free it. In 1482 Portuguese sailors braved the ocean beyond the Canary Islands and discovered a fresh water flow off the coast of Central Africa. Following a silt trail, fighting a fast current, they found the mouth of a vast river. Nine years later priests and emissaries arrived and began the first European settlement in a black African kingdom. Small scale slavery existed but a booming slave trade developed with the Americas to grow cotton and cane. During the 19th century slavery was abolished in Britain and America yet continued in Afro-Arab commerce. Leopold II (1835-1909) was the King of the Belgians and obsessed with obtaining colonies. He studied records of conquistadores in Seville, sailed to India, Ceylon, Burma and Java noting lucrative concerns. Plantations depended on forced labor to lift profits and civilize the lazy natives. He looked at land in Brazil, Argentina, Phillipines and Taiwan. Frustrated in these attempts he focused his sights on Africa. Humanitarian pretenses of freeing Africa from slavery and bringing enlightenment to the Dark Continent disguised his dreams of ivory and rubber.

Henry Morton Stanley led a Dickensonian life. Abandoned to a poorhouse as a child he sailed to America and became a soldier in the Civil War, first for the Confederacy and then for the Union. He became a newspaper correspondent and tracked down explorer David Livingstone during his search for the source of the Nile. Returning to Africa in 1874 to map the waterways of the interior he discovered the source of the Congo River. Upon reaching the Atlantic he was hired by Leopold to establish trading posts and railroads and force tribal leaders to cede land. King Leopold and an American ambassador formed fake philanthropic associations for evangelism and scientific study of the region. In 1884 he lobbied the US to recognize the Congo Free State, in reality a colony owned by himself. Post-Civil War politicians were interested in sending freed slaves back to Africa. The area annexed was as large as the land east of the Mississippi while Belgium was half the size of West Virginia. In diplomatic deals France and Germany fell into line and Britain became invested. The challenge was to carry steamboats over the falls. By 1890 trading stations had been secured. Elephants were hunted by conscripted natives or their ivory simply seized. Vacant land was leased to private companies with shares of the profit retained. Legions of Africans were used as porters through jungles chained by the neck. So many were needed agents began to purchase them from the slave traders they purported to abolish. Security officers of the Free State were Europeans, half from Belgium, with soldiers drawn from the Congo. They chose to join the conquerors, their spears and muskets no match for machine guns. Leopold's agents set up orphanages run by Catholic missions to train future troops. Captured women were kept in harems by agents or held hostage to coerce their men to harvest rubber. Discipline was enforced with the whip and counted in severed hands of dead rebels. To exact penalties entire villages were often burned down. The human toll over a quarter century is not known for certain but is estimated at 10 million, or half of the population. The causes included murder, starvation and disease (due to inhuman working conditions) and lowered birth rates. Joseph Conrad was briefly a steamboat pilot on the Congo, his novel 'Heart of Darkness' a depiction of what he saw. Displays of decapitated heads were not only a metaphorical critique of colonialism. Black Americans G.W. Williams, a polymath, and W.H. Sheppard, a missionary, exposed the conditions in 1890. Few voices of natives were recorded but are included where possible. In 1898 British shipping clerk E. D. Morel and Irish diplomat R. Casement suspected forced labor and began campaigns. Mark Twain and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle wrote exposés on Leopold. As opinion turned Leopold waged propaganda wars. Self-appointed commission reports criticized his regime. The only option was to sell Congo to Belgium; self rule was unthinkable. In 1908 Leopold was given a billion dollar bonus and billions remained in his name. Wild rubber was replaced with farms. Atrocities declined but forced labor persisted. Head taxes kept people in plantations and mines before independence in 1960. PM Lumumba, seen as hostile to business, was shot with Belgian and US assistance and replaced by kleptocrat Mobuto until 1997.

CLICK HERE TO DOWNLOAD THIS BOOK FROM THE BLACK TRUEBRARY

[brewingspirits-ghost-hunters]

Coffee and Colonialism

(Ukers, 1922, 291)

Coffee in the Netherlands 

Already in the early 17th century, with the establishment of the Dutch East India Company and the increase of Dutch maritime activities in the East, many Dutch merchants were looking into experimenting with the possibility of trading coffee. A Dutch merchant, called Pieter Van dan Broeck, began with the importation of coffee beans from Mocha to the Netherlands. With this success, in 1616, he began to import coffee plants from the same port city of Mocha on the Arabian Peninsula to the Netherlands. As a side note, the city of Mocha is the place of origin of caffè mocha. With Pieter’s coffee plants, the Dutch East India Company began to experiment with plantations of those coffee plants in its Eastern colonial port city. The Dutch started to grow coffee on the island of Ceylon (modern day Sri Lanka) in 1658 after capturing the island from the Portuguese (Ukers, 1922, p.43). By the end of the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company had established a systemic chain of supply of coffee beans from the island of Ceylon and the Malabar Coast. In 1688, due to the competition between the Dutch East India Company and the English East India Company over the importation of coffee and also tea in the European continental market, the Dutch East India Company expanded its coffee plantation and production to the island of Java, which is in modern day Indonesia (Weinburg, 2001, p. 40).  

Dutch East India Company and Colonial Coffee

Coffee plantations in the Dutch East Indies on the island of Java started in 1688. It took a considerable amount of time for the plantation and production of coffee beans in the East Indies to be sufficiently high enough for exportation. Only in the year 1711 were there actually coffee beans arriving in the Netherlands' capital of Amsterdam (Weinberg, 2001, p. 38). Unlike the plantation system in the New World, where slaves were "imported" from several African kingdoms, the plantation institutions in the Dutch East Indies used unfree labourers from the local population (Ukers, 1922, p. 43-44). This system was unfortunately very successful, and the Dutch East Indies was one of the world's largest producers of coffee beans before the Brazilians (Ukers, 1922, p. 74).

The Dutch East India Company and other "East India Company" from several other European states were an interesting imperialism phenomenon in the 17th century. Those East India companies were, as the name suggested, companies. But the intriguing part of those trading "companies" was that they could, and in fact they did, control a substantial number of territories in the regions of South and Southeast Asia. Some of those companies, like that of the English East India Company and the Dutch East India Company, were essentially functioning as an independent corporation state. One notable example was the special relationship between Tokugawa Japan and the Dutch East India Company (Clulow, 2010, p. 23-24). Japan at that time was restricting itself from many diplomatic relationships with foreign states, and there were only a handful of polities and states that could engage with the secluded Japan. The secluded Japanese state did not engage diplomatically with the Netherlands but instead with the Dutch East India Company.

Sources:

Clulow, Adam. “A Fake Embassy, the Lord of Taiwan and Tokugawa Japan.” Japanese Studies 30, no. 1 (May 2010): 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/10371391003639161.

Ukers, William H. All About Coffee. New York: Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Co, 1922.

Weinberg, Bennett Alan, and Bonnie K. Bealer. World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World’s Most Popular Drug. Routledge, 2001.

-By Steve Cheng

[affairsmastery]

Which dynasty art was spreaded as far as Java and Sumatra?

[A] Gupta

[B] Rashtakutas

[C] Chandellas

[D] Chola

Correct Answer is D.

Chola Art not only influenced the art of Ceylone, but it travelled as far as Java and Sumatra.

Cholas succeeded the Pallavas and ruled over South India from 9th to 13th centuries CE.

[doubtspirit]

Golden age: The Blue Star poster from 1935 shows how cruise companies learnt to trade on the exoticism of the destinations they visited

[madamelesfressange]

               The Gospel of Nature according to Marianne North

“After Mrs North died in 1855, Marianne and her father let their house during the summer and travelled extensively together. When he became ill in 1869 she brought him home to Hastings where he died. Marianne was heartbroken. Two years later, with a large inheritance and as mistress of her own destiny, she forsook Hastings upper-class society and decided to travel the world painting plants and flowers.

 In 1871, aged 41, she sold Hastings Lodge and undertook her first great trip, covering North America, Jamaica and Brazil. A further trip in 1875 started in the Americas and then went on to Japan, the East Indies, Ceylon, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.

In Brazil she did most of her work in a hut in the jungle. In 1875, after a few months at Tenerife, she began a two-year journey around the world, painting flowers in California, Japan, Borneo, Java, and Ceylon. She spent 1878 in India. On her return to England, she exhibited a large number of paintings and offered them to Kew Botanical Gardens.

Among Marianne's acquaintances and friends were Edward Lear, U.S. President Grant, and Charles Darwin. At the latter's suggestion she went to Australia in 1880 and then to New Zealand. Between 1883 to 1885 she worked in South Africa, the Seychelles and Chile. She continued to travel until the mid-1880s despite poor health. Her journal relates scaling cliffs and crossing swamps to reach the plants she wanted, with little regard for danger. She mentions breakdowns and bad weather in passing, but usually follows this with a description of the flowers and plants she drew while waiting for it to pass. On her return to England in 1885 she lived in Gloucestershire, where she died in 1890.”

Sample Works:

1. Palms, Capucin Trees, etc. on the Cliffs near Venn's Town, Mahé

2. Foliage, Flowers and Fruit of the Capucin Tree of the Seychelles

3. Zedoary, a climbing Plant and Mantises, Java

4.View from Collaroy, New South Wales, Looking towards the Liverpool Downs

5.View from the Artist's Window at Buitenzorg, Java

6.View in Singapore with Nyum-Nyum Tree 

7.Foliage and Flowers of the Burmese Thaw-Ka or Soka

8. Painting of Leaf Insects and Stick Insects

9.Views from the Bridge at Buitenzorg (Bogor), Java

10. Distant View of Kinchinjunga from Darjeeling

[nottherealajhq]

im sorry about the pie stop sayibg ow ow help mee

Sent us an anon twice, you die to the spice!

Ajwain, carom seeds (Trachyspermum ammi) (Pakistan, South Asia, India, Afghanistan, Iran, Egypt, Eritrea & Ethiopia) Alexanders (Smyrnium olusatrum) Alkanet (Alkanna tinctoria), for red color Alligator pepper, mbongo spice (mbongochobi), hepper pepper (Aframomum danielli, A. citratum, A. exscapum) (West Africa) Allspice (Pimenta dioica) Angelica (Angelica archangelica) Anise (Pimpinella anisum) Aniseed myrtle (Syzygium anisatum) (Australia) Annatto (Bixa orellana) Artemisia (Artemisia spp.) Asafoetida (Ferula assafoetida) Avens (Geum urbanum) Avocado leaf (Persea americana)

Barberry (Berberis vulgaris and other Berberis spp.) Basil, sweet (Ocimum basilicum) Basil, Holy (Ocimum tenuiflorum) Basil, lemon (Ocimum × citriodorum) Basil, Thai (O. basilicum var. thyrsiflora) Bay leaf (Laurus nobilis) Bay leaf, Indian; tejpat, malabathrum (Cinnamomum tamala) Bay leaf, Indonesian; Indonesian laurel, Salam leaf, daun salam (Syzygium polyanthum) Bay leaf, Mexican; laurél (Litsea glaucescens) Bay leaf, West Indian (Pimenta racemosa) Boldo (Peumus boldus) Borage (Borago officinalis) Blue fenugreek, blue melilot (Trigonella caerulea)

California bay laurel (Umbellularia californica) Caper (Capparis spinosa) Caraway (Carum carvi) Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) Cardamom, black; badi ilaichi (Amomum subulatum, Amomum costatum) (India, Pakistan) Cassia (Cinnamomum aromaticum) Cao guo, Chinese black cardamom (Lanxangia tsaoko) (China) Cayenne pepper (Capsicum annuum) Celery leaf (Apium graveolens) Celery seed (Apium graveolens) Chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium) Chicory (Cichorium intybus) Chili pepper (Capsicum spp.) Chives (Allium schoenoprasum) Cicely, sweet cicely (Myrrhis odorata) Cilantro, coriander greens, coriander herb, Chinese parsley (Coriandrum sativum) Cinnamon, Indonesian (Cinnamomum burmannii, Cassia vera) Cinnamon, Saigon or Vietnamese (Cinnamomum loureiroi) Cinnamon, true or Ceylon (Cinnamomum verum, C. zeylanicum) Cinnamon, white (Canella winterana) Cinnamon myrtle (Backhousia myrtifolia) (Australia) Clary, Clary sage (Salvia sclarea) Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) Coriander seed (Coriandrum sativum) Coriander, Vietnamese (Persicaria odorata) Costmary (Tanacetum balsamita) Cubeb pepper (Piper cubeba) Culantro, culangot, long coriander, recao (Eryngium foetidum) Cumin (Cuminum cyminum) Curry leaf (Murraya koenigii) Curry plant (Helichrysum italicum) Cyperus articulatus

Dill herb or weed (Anethum graveolens)

Dill seed (Anethum graveolens)

Elderflower (Sambucus spp.)

Epazote (Dysphania ambrosioides)

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) Filé powder, gumbo filé (Sassafras albidum) Fingerroot, temu kuntji, krachai, k'cheay (Boesenbergia rotunda) (Java, Thailand, Cambodia) Fish mint, leaf; giấp cá (Houttuynia cordata) (Vietnam) Fish mint, rhizome; zhé ěrgēn (Houttuynia cordata) (Guizhou, Sichuan, Yunnan, and Guangxi provinces of China)

Galangal, greater (Alpinia galanga) Galangal, lesser (Alpinia officinarum) Garlic (Allium sativum) Garlic chives (Allium tuberosum) Ginger (Zingiber officinale) Ginger, torch; bunga siantan (Etlingera elatior) (Indonesia) Golpar, Persian hogweed (Heracleum persicum) (Iran) Grains of paradise (Aframomum melegueta) Grains of Selim, Kani pepper (Xylopia aethiopica)

Hoja santa, hierba santa, acuyo (Piper auritum) (Mexico) Horseradish (Armoracia rusticana) Huacatay, Mexican marigold, mint marigold (Tagetes minuta) Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis)

Jasmine flowers (Jasminum spp.) Jakhya (Cleome viscosa) Jalapeño (Capsicum annuum cultivar) Jimbu (Allium hypsistum) (Nepal) Juniper berry (Juniperus communis)

Kaffir lime leaves, Makrud lime leaves (Citrus hystrix) (Southeast Asia) Kala zeera (or kala jira), black cumin (Bunium persicum) (South Asia) Keluak, kluwak, kepayang (Pangium edule) Kencur, galangal, kentjur (Kaempferia galanga) (Java, Bali) Kinh gioi, Vietnamese balm (Elsholtzia ciliata) Kokam seed (Garcinia indica) (Indian confectionery) Korarima, Ethiopian cardamom, false cardamom (Aframomum corrorima) (Eritrea) Koseret leaves (Lippia abyssinica) (Ethiopia) Kudum Puli (Garcinia gummi-gutta) Lavender (Lavandula spp.) Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) Lemon ironbark (Eucalyptus staigeriana) (Australia) Lemon myrtle (Backhousia citriodora) (Australia) Lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora) Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus, and other Cymbopogon spp.) Leptotes bicolor (Paraguay and southern Brazil) Lesser calamint (Calamintha nepeta), nipitella, nepitella (Italy) Licorice, liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) Lime flower, linden flower (Tilia spp.) Lovage (Levisticum officinale) Locust beans (Ceratonia siliqua)

Mace (Myristica fragrans) Mahleb, mahalepi, St. Lucie cherry (Prunus mahaleb) Marjoram (Origanum majorana) Mastic (Pistacia lentiscus) Mint (Mentha spp.), 25 species, hundreds of varieties Mountain horopito (Pseudowintera colorata), 'pepper-plant' (New Zealand) Musk mallow, abelmosk (Abelmoschus moschatus) Mustard, black, mustard plant, mustard seed (Brassica nigra) Mustard, brown, mustard plant, mustard seed (Brassica juncea) Mustard, white, mustard plant, mustard seed (Sinapis alba) Mustard, yellow (Brassica hirta = Sinapis alba)

New Mexico chile (Capsicum annuum 'New Mexico Group', also known as Hatch or Anaheim) which includes Big Jim, Chimayó, and Sandia, and other pepper cultivars. Nigella, black caraway, black cumin, black onion seed, kalonji (Nigella sativa) Njangsa, djansang (Ricinodendron heudelotii) (West Africa) Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans)

Olida (Eucalyptus olida) (Australia) Oregano (Origanum vulgare, O. heracleoticum, and other species) Oregano, Cuban (Coleus amboinicus) Oregano, Mexican (Lippia graveolens) Orris root (Iris germanica, I. florentina, I. pallida)

Pandan flower, kewra (Pandanus odoratissimus) Pandan leaf, screwpine (Pandanus amaryllifolius) Pápalo (Porophyllum ruderale) (Mexico and South America) Paprika (Capsicum annuum) Paracress (Acmella oleracea) (Brazil) Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium) Pepper, black, white, and green (Piper nigrum) Pepper, Brazilian, or pink pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius) Pepper, Dorrigo (Tasmannia stipitata) (Australia) Pepper, long (Piper longum) Pepper, mountain, Cornish pepper leaf (Tasmannia lanceolata) Peppermint (Mentha piperata) Peppermint gum leaf (Eucalyptus dives) Perilla (Mentha pulegium)Deulkkae (Perilla frutescens seeds) Kkaennip (Perilla frutescens leaves) Shiso (Perilla frutescens var. crispa leaves) Peruvian pepper (Schinus molle) Pipicha, straight-leaf pápalo (Porophyllum linaria) (Mexico) Poppy seed (Papaver somniferum) Purslane

Quassia (Quassia amara), bitter spice in aperitifs and some beers and fortified wines

Red rice powder (Monascus purpureus) (China) Rice paddy herb (Limnophila aromatica) (Vietnam) Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) Rue (Ruta graveolens)

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), only for yellow color Saffron (Crocus sativus)use of saffron Sage (Salvia officinalis) Salad burnet (Sanguisorba minor) Salep (Orchis mascula) Sassafras (Sassafras albidum) Sesame Seed, Black Sesame Seed Savory, summer (Satureja hortensis) Savory, winter (Satureja montana) Shiso (Perilla frutescens) Silphium, silphion, laser, laserpicium, sorado (Ancient Roman cuisine, Ancient Greek cuisine) Sorrel (Rumex acetosa) Sorrel, sheep (Rumex acetosella) Spearmint (Mentha spicata) Spikenard (Nardostachys grandiflora or N. jatamansi) Star anise (Illicium verum) Sumac (Rhus coriaria) Sweet woodruff (Galium odoratum) Szechuan pepper, Sichuan pepper (Zanthoxylum piperitum) Tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus) Tasmanian pepper (Tasmannia lanceolata)) Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) Thyme, lemon (Thymus citriodorus) Tonka beans (Dipteryx odorata) Turmeric (Curcuma longa)

Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) Voatsiperifery (Piper borbonense) [Madagascar]

Wasabi (Wasabia japonica) Water-pepper, smartweed (Polygonum hydropiper) Wattleseed (from about 120 spp. of Australian Acacia) Wild thyme (Thymus serpyllum) Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens) Wood avens, herb bennet (Geum urbanum) Woodruff (Galium odoratum) Wormwood, absinthe (Artemisia absinthium)

Yerba buena, any of four different species, many unrelated

Yarrow (Achillea millefolium)

Za'atar (herbs from the genera Origanum, Calamintha, Thymus, and Satureja)

Zedoary (Curcuma zedoaria)

Which one is your favorite? Tell us below to die instantly

[greatworldwar2]

• IJN Aircraft Carrier Hiryū

Hiryū (飛龍, "Flying Dragon") was an aircraft carrier built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) during the 1930s. Generally regarded as the only ship of her class, she was built to a modified Sōryū design.

Hiryū was one of two large carriers approved for construction under the 1931–32 Supplementary Program. Originally designed as the sister ship of Sōryū, her design was enlarged and modified in light of the Tomozuru and Fourth Fleet Incidents in 1934–1935 that revealed many IJN ships were top-heavy, unstable and structurally weak. Her forecastle was raised and her hull strengthened. Other changes involved increasing her beam, displacement, and armor protection. The ship had a length of 227.4 meters (746 ft 1 in) overall, a beam of 22.3 meters (73 ft 2 in) and a draft of 7.8 meters (25 ft 7 in). She displaced 17,600 metric tons (17,300 long tons) at standard load and 20,570 metric tons (20,250 long tons) at normal load. Her crew consisted of 1,100 officers and enlisted men. Hiryū was fitted with four geared steam turbine sets with a total of 153,000 shaft horsepower (114,000 kW). Hiryū carried 4,500 metric tons (4,400 long tons) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 10,330 nautical miles (19,130 km; 11,890 mi) at 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph). The boiler uptakes were trunked to the ship's starboard side amidships and exhausted just below flight deck level through two funnels curved downward.

The carrier's 216.9-meter (711 ft 7 in) flight deck was 27 meters (88 ft 6 in) wide and overhung her superstructure at both ends, supported by pairs of pillars. Hiryū was one of only two carriers ever built whose island was on the port side of the ship (Akagi was the other). It was also positioned further to the rear and encroached on the width of the flight deck, unlike Sōryū. The flight deck was only 12.8 meters (42 ft) above the waterline and the ship's designers kept this figure low by reducing the height of the hangars. The upper hangar was 171.3 by 18.3 meters (562 by 60 ft) and had an approximate height of 4.6 meters (15 ft); the lower was 142.3 by 18.3 meters (467 by 60 ft) and had an approximate height of 4.3 meters (14 ft). Together they had an approximate total area of 5,736 square meters (61,740 sq ft). This caused problems in handling aircraft because the wings of a Nakajima B5N "Kate" torpedo bomber could neither be spread nor folded in the upper hangar. Aircraft were transported between the hangars and the flight deck by three elevators, the forward one abreast the island on the centerline and the other two offset to starboard.

Hiryū's primary anti-aircraft (AA) armament consisted of six twin-gun mounts equipped with 12.7-centimeter Type 89 dual-purpose guns mounted on projecting sponsons, three on either side of the carrier's hull. When firing at surface targets, the guns had a range of 14,700 meters (16,100 yd); they had a maximum ceiling of 9,440 meters (30,970 ft) at their maximum elevation of +90 degrees. Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute, but their sustained rate of fire was approximately eight rounds per minute. The ship was equipped with two Type 94 fire-control directors to control the 12.7-centimeter (5.0 in) guns, one for each side of the ship; the starboard-side director was on top of the island and the other director was positioned below flight deck level on the port side. The ship's light AA armament consisted of seven triple and five twin-gun mounts for license-built Hotchkiss 25 mm Type 96 AA guns. Two of the triple mounts were sited on a platform just below the forward end of the flight deck. Hiryū had a waterline belt with a maximum thickness of 150 millimeters (5.9 in) over the magazines that reduced to 90 millimeters (3.5 in) over the machinery spaces and the gas storage tanks. It was backed by an internal anti-splinter bulkhead. The ship's deck was 25 millimeters (0.98 in) thick over the machinery spaces and 55 millimeters (2.2 in) thick over the magazines and gas storage tanks.

Following the Japanese ship-naming conventions for aircraft carriers, Hiryū was named "Flying Dragon". The ship was laid down at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on July 8th, 1936, launched on November 16th, 1937 and commissioned on July 5th, 1939. She was assigned to the Second Carrier Division on November 15th. In September 1940, the ship's air group was transferred to Hainan Island to support the Japanese invasion of French Indochina. In February 1941, Hiryū supported the blockade of Southern China. Two months later, the 2nd Carrier Division, commanded by Rear Admiral Tamon Yamaguchi, was assigned to the First Air Fleet, or Kido Butai, on April 10th. Hiryū returned to Japan on August 7th and began a short refit that was completed on September 15th. She became flagship of the Second Division from September 22nd to October 26th while Sōryū was refitting. In November 1941, the IJN's Combined Fleet, commanded by Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, prepared to participate in Japan's initiation of a formal war with the United States by conducting a preemptive strike against the United States Navy's Pacific Fleet base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. On November 22nd, Hiryū, commanded by Captain Tomeo Kaku, and the rest of the Kido Butai, under Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo and including six fleet carriers from the First, Second, and Fifth Carrier Divisions, assembled in Hitokappu Bay at Etorofu Island. The fleet departed Etorofu, and followed a course across the north-central Pacific to avoid commercial shipping lanes. Now the flagship of the Second Carrier Division, the ship embarked 21 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters, 18 Aichi D3A "Val" dive bombers, and 18 Nakajima B5N "Kate" torpedo bombers. From a position 230 nmi (430 km; 260 mi) north of Oahu, Hiryū and the other five carriers launched two waves of aircraft on the morning of December 7th, 1941 Hawaiian time. In the first wave, 8 B5N torpedo bombers were supposed to attack the aircraft carriers that normally berthed on the northwest side of Ford Island, but none were in Pearl Harbor that day; 4 of the B5N pilots diverted to their secondary target, ships berthed alongside "1010 Pier" where the fleet flagship was usually moored. That ship, the battleship Pennsylvania, was in drydock and its position was occupied by the light cruiser Helena and the minelayer Oglala; all four torpedoes missed. The other four pilots attacked the battleships West Virginia and Oklahoma. The remaining 10 B5Ns were tasked to drop 800-kilogram (1,800 lb) armor-piercing bombs on the battleships berthed on the southeast side of Ford Island ("Battleship Row") and may have scored one or two hits on them, in addition to causing a magazine explosion aboard the battleship Arizona that sank her with heavy loss of life. The second wave consisted of 9 Zeros and 18 D3As, They strafed the airfield, and shot down two Curtiss P-40 fighters attempting to take off when the Zeros arrived and a Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bomber that had earlier diverted from Hickam Army Airfield, and also destroyed a Stinson O-49 observation aircraft on the ground for the loss of one of their own. The D3As attacked various ships in Pearl Harbor, but it is not possible to identify which aircraft attacked which ship.

While returning to Japan after the attack, Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo, commander of the First Air Fleet, ordered that Sōryū and Hiryū be detached on December 16th to attack the defenders of Wake Island who had already defeated the first Japanese attack on the island. The two carriers reached the vicinity of the island on December 21st and launched 29 D3As and 2 B5Ns, escorted by 18 Zeros, to attack ground targets. They encountered no aerial opposition and launched 35 B5Ns and 6 A6M Zeros the following day. The carriers arrived at Kure on 29 December. They were assigned to the Southern Force on January 8th, 1942 and departed four days later for the Dutch East Indies. The ships supported the invasion of the Palau Islands and the Battle of Ambon, attacking Allied positions on the island on January 23rd with 54 aircraft. Four days later the carriers detached 18 Zeros and 9 D3As to operate from land bases in support of Japanese operations in the Battle of Borneo. Hiryū and Sōryū arrived at Palau on January 28th and waited for the arrival of the carriers Kaga and Akagi. All four carriers departed Palau on February 15th and launched air strikes against Darwin, Australia, four days later. Hiryū contributed 18 B5Ns, 18 D3As, and 9 Zeros to the attack. Her aircraft attacked the ships in port and its facilities, sinking or setting on fire three ships and damaging two others. Hiryū and the other carriers arrived at Staring Bay on Celebes Island on February 21st to resupply and rest before departing four days later to support the invasion of Java. On March 1st, 1942, the ship's D3As damaged the destroyer USS Edsall badly enough for her to be caught and sunk by Japanese cruisers. Later that day the dive bombers sank the oil tanker USS Pecos. Two days later, they attacked Christmas Island and Hiryū's aircraft sank the Dutch freighter Poelau Bras before returning to Staring Bay on March 11th to resupply and train for the impending Indian Ocean raid.

On March 26th, the five carriers of the First Air Fleet departed from Staring Bay; they were spotted by a Catalina about 350 nautical miles (650 km; 400 mi) southeast of Ceylon on the morning of April 4th. Six of Hiryū's Zeros were on Combat Air Patrol (CAP) and helped to shoot it down. Hiryū contributed 18 B5Ns and 9 Zeros to the force; the latter encountered a flight of 6 Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers from 788 Naval Air Squadron en route and shot them all down without loss. The Japanese aircraft encountered defending Hawker Hurricane fighters from Nos. 30 and 258 Squadrons RAF over Ratmalana airfield and Hiryū's fighters claimed to have shot down 11 with 3 Zeros damaged, although the fighters from the other carriers also made claims. On the morning of April 9th, Hiryū's CAP shot down another Catalina attempting to locate the fleet and, later that morning, contributed 18 B5Ns, escorted by 6 Zeros, to the attack on Trincomalee. The fighters engaged 261 Squadron RAF, claiming to have shot down two with two more shared with fighters from the other carriers. On April 19th, while transiting the Bashi Straits between Taiwan and Luzon en route to Japan, Hiryū, Sōryū, and Akagi were sent in pursuit of the American carriers Hornet and Enterprise, which had launched the Doolittle Raid against Tokyo. They found only empty ocean, as the American carriers had immediately departed the area to return to Hawaii. The carriers quickly abandoned the chase and dropped anchor at Hashirajima anchorage on April 22nd. Having been engaged in constant operations for four and a half months, the ship, along with the other three carriers of the First and Second Carrier Divisions, was hurriedly refitted and replenished in preparation for the Combined Fleet's next major operation, scheduled to begin one month hence. While at Hashirajima, Hiryū's air group was based ashore at Tomitaka Airfield, near Saiki, Ōita, and conducted flight and weapons training with the other First Air Fleet carrier units.

Concerned by the US carrier strikes in the Marshall Islands, Lae-Salamaua, and the Doolittle raids, Yamamoto was determined to force the US Navy into a showdown to eliminate the American carrier threat. He decided to invade and occupy Midway Atoll, which he was sure would draw out the American carriers to defend it. The Japanese codenamed the Midway invasion Operation MI. Unknown to the Japanese, the US Navy had divined the Japanese plan by breaking its JN-25 code and had prepared an ambush using its three available carriers, positioned northeast of Midway. On May 25th, 1942, Hiryū set out with the Combined Fleet's carrier striking force in the company of Kaga, Akagi, and Sōryū, which constituted the First and Second Carrier Divisions, for the attack on Midway. Her aircraft complement consisted of 18 Zeros, 18 D3As, and 18 B5Ns. on June 4th, 1942, Hiryū's portion of the 108-plane airstrike was an attack on the facilities on Sand Island with 18 torpedo bombers, one of which aborted with mechanical problems, escorted by nine Zeros. The air group suffered heavily during the attack: two B5Ns were shot down by fighters, with a third falling victim to AA fire. The carrier also contributed 3 Zeros to the total of 11 assigned to the initial CAP over the four carriers. By 07:05, the carrier had 6 fighters with the CAP which helped to defend the Kido Butai from the first US attackers from Midway Island at 07:10. Hiryū reinforced the CAP with launches of 3 more Zeros at 08:25. These fresh Zeros helped defeat the next American air strike from Midway. Although all the American air strikes had thus far caused negligible damage, they kept the Japanese carrier forces off-balance as Nagumo endeavored to prepare a response to news, received at 08:20, of the sighting of American carrier forces to his northeast.

Hiryū began recovering her Midway strike force at around 09:00 and finished shortly by 09:10. The landed aircraft were quickly struck below, while the carriers' crews began preparations to spot aircraft for the strike against the American carrier forces. The preparations were interrupted at 09:18, when the first attacking American carrier aircraft were sighted. Hiryū launched another trio of CAP Zeros at 10:13 after Torpedo Squadron 3 (VT-3) from Yorktown was spotted. Two of her Zeros were shot down by Wildcats escorting VT-3 and another was forced to ditch. While VT-3 was still attacking Hiryū, American dive bombers arrived over the Japanese carriers almost undetected and began their dives. It was at this time, around 10:20, that in the words of Jonathan Parshall and Anthony Tully, the "Japanese air defenses would finally and catastrophically fail." Three American dive bomber squadrons now attacked the three other carriers and set each of them on fire. Hiryū was untouched and proceeded to launch 18 D3As, escorted by six Zeros, at 10:54. Yamaguchi radioed his intention to Nagumo at 16:30 to launch a third strike against the American carriers at dusk (approximately 18:00), but Nagumo ordered the fleet to withdraw to the west. At this point in the battle, Hiryū had only 4 air-worthy dive-bombers and 5 torpedo-planes left. She also retained 19 of her own fighters on board as well as a further 13 Zeros on CAP (a composite force of survivors from the other carriers). At 16:45, Enterprise's dive bombers spotted the Japanese carrier and began to maneuver for good attacking position while reducing altitude. Hiryū was struck by four 1,000-pound (450 kg) bombs, three on the forward flight deck and one on the forward elevator. The explosions started fires among the aircraft on the hangar deck. The forward half of the flight deck collapsed into the hangar while part of the elevator was hurled against the ship's bridge. The fires were severe enough that the remaining American aircraft attacked the other ships escorting Hiryū, albeit without effect, deeming further attacks on the carrier as a waste of time because she was aflame from stem to stern. Beginning at 17:42, two groups of B-17s attempted to attack the Japanese ships without success, although one bomber strafed Hiryū's flight deck, killing several anti-aircraft gunners. Although Hiryū's propulsion was not affected, the fires could not be brought under control. At 21:23, her engines stopped, and at 23:58 a major explosion rocked the ship. The order to abandon ship was given at 03:15, and the survivors were taken off by the destroyers Kazagumo and Makigumo. Yamaguchi and Kaku decided to remain on board as Hiryū was torpedoed at 05:10 by Makigumo as the ship could not be salvaged. Around 07:00, one of Hōshō's Yokosuka B4Y aircraft discovered Hiryū still afloat and not in any visible danger of sinking. The aviators could also see crewmen aboard the carrier, men who had not received word to abandon ship. They finally launched some of the carrier's boats and abandoned ship themselves around 09:00. Thirty-nine men made it into the ship's cutter only moments before Hiryū sank around 09:12, taking the bodies of 389 men with her. The loss of Hiryū and the three other IJN carriers at Midway, comprising two thirds of Japan's total number of fleet carriers and the experienced core of the First Air Fleet, was a strategic defeat for Japan and contributed significantly to Japan's ultimate defeat in the war. In an effort to conceal the defeat, the ship was not immediately removed from the Navy's registry of ships, instead being listed as "unmanned" before finally being struck from the registry on 25 September 1942. The IJN selected a modified version of the Hiryū design for mass production to replace the carriers lost at Midway. Of a planned program of 16 ships of the Unryū class, only 6 were laid down and 3 were commissioned before the end of the war.

[steliosagapitos]

              “Blue Lily And A Large Butterfly”, circa 1882, by Marianne North.

   ~ Marianne North was a prolific English Victorian biologist and botanical artist, notable for her plant and landscape paintings, her extensive foreign travels, her writings, her plant discoveries and the creation of her gallery at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Marianne North was born on 24 October 1830 in Hastings, the eldest daughter of a prosperous land-owning family descended from the Hon. Roger North, younger son of Dudley North, 4th Baron North. Her father was Frederick North, a Norfolk Deputy Lieutenant and Justice of the Peace, and Liberal M.P. for Hastings. Her mother, Janet, was the daughter of Sir John Marjoribanks M.P., 1st Baronet of Lees in the County of Berwick. She trained as a vocalist under Charlotte Helen Sainton-Dolby, but her voice failed, and she then devoted herself to painting flowers. After the death of her mother in 1855, she constantly travelled with her father, who was then member of parliament for Hastings; and on his death in 1869 she decided to pursue her early ambition of painting the flora of distant countries. Marianne North travelled with her father in Syria and along the Nile in 1865-67. After her father's death in 1869 she travelled and made paintings in Sicily. In 1871–1872, she travelled to Canada, the United States and Jamaica, and spent a year in Brazil, where she did much of her work at a hut in the depths of a forest. In 1875, after a few months in Tenerife, she began a journey round the world, and for two years painted the flora of California, Japan, Borneo, Java and Ceylon. She spent all of 1878 in various parts of India. On her return to Britain she exhibited a number of her drawings in London. She offered to give the collection to the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, and to erect a gallery to house them. This offer was accepted, and the new buildings, designed by James Fergusson, were begun that year. At Charles Darwin's suggestion she went to Australia in 1880, and for a year painted there and in New Zealand. On her return, she presented Darwin the shrub 'Australian Sheep' (Raoulia eximia) as a gift and showed him her Australian pictures. Her paintings of Banksia attenuata, B. grandis and B. robur were highly regarded. Her gallery at Kew was opened in 1882.In 1883, after a visit by her to South Africa, during which trip she called on the botanical artist Katharine Saunders, an additional room was opened at the Kew gallery, and in 1884–1885 she worked in the Seychelles and in Chile. She died at Alderley, Gloucestershire on 30 August 1890  and is buried in the local churchyard. The scientific accuracy with which she documented plant life in all parts of the world, before photography became a practical option, gives her work a permanent value. A number of plant species are named in her honour, including Areca northiana, Crinum northianum, Kniphofia northiana, Nepenthes northiana, and the genus name Northia. Kew Gardens claims that the North Gallery (situated in the east section of the gardens) is "the only permanent solo exhibition by a female artist in Britain". In 2008 Kew obtained a substantial grant from the National Lottery, which enabled it to mount a major restoration of both the gallery and the paintings inside. ~

Source: Wikipedia.

[historybizarre]

The 15th-century coffee trading network was based in the Red Sea region with the Yemeni port of Mocha as its focal point. Mocha received its supply from the Ethiopian highlands in northeast Africa, the natural habitat of what is now known as Arabica coffee. By the 17th century the English East India Company and the Dutch East India Company had infiltrated this trade, hitherto operated by the Arab, Cairenes, and Turkish merchants. The process of severing Islamic roots of coffee was set in motion.

By the 18th century, the English, the Dutch, and the French had succeeded in transporting and transplanting coffee seeds to their colonies in Indonesia, South India, Sri Lanka, and the Caribbean. Consequently, the Java, Malabar, Ceylon, and Jamaican coffee beans took over the global market. While these coffees, much like the caffè mocha, derive their names from their trade ports of origin, their association with European masters was undeniable.

[freevoidkitty]

WORLD’S LITERATURE

SOUTHEAST ASIA         

  Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia is the southeastern subregion of Asia, consisting of the regions that are geographically south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent and north-west of Australia. Southeast Asia is bordered to the north by East Asia, to the west by South Asia and the Bay of Bengal, to the east by Oceania and the Pacific Ocean, and to the south by Australia and the Indian Ocean. Apart from the British Indian Ocean Territory and two out of 26 atolls of Maldives in South Asia, Southeast Asia is the only other subregion of Asia that lies partly within the Southern Hemisphere. Southeast Asia covers about 4.5 million km2 (1.7 million mi2), which is 10.5% of Asia or 3% of Earth's total land area. Its total population is more than 655 million, about 8.5% of the world's population. It is the third most populous geographical region in Asia after South Asia and East Asia. The region is culturally and ethnically diverse, with hundreds of languages spoken by different ethnic groups. Ten countries in the region are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), a regional organization established for economic, political, military, educational and cultural integration amongst its members.

The region, together with part of South Asia, was well known by Europeans as the East Indies or simply the Indies until the 20th century. Chinese sources referred the region as Nanyang ("南洋"), which literally means the "Southern Ocean". The mainland section of Southeast Asia was referred to as Indochina by European geographers due to its location between China and the Indian subcontinent and its having cultural influences from both neighboring regions. In the 20th century, however, the term became more restricted to territories of the former French Indochina (Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam). The maritime section of Southeast Asia is also known as the Malay Archipelago, a term derived from the European concept of a Malay race. Another term for Maritime Southeast Asia is Insulindia (Indian Islands), used to describe the region between Indochina and Australasia. The term "Southeast Asia" was first used in 1839 by American pastor Howard Malcolm in his book Travels in South-Eastern Asia. Malcolm only included the Mainland section and excluded the Maritime section in his definition of Southeast Asia.[13] The term was officially used in the midst of World War II by the Allies, through the formation of South East Asia Command (SEAC) in 1943.[14] SEAC popularised the use of the term "Southeast Asia," although what constituted Southeast Asia was not fixed; for example, SEAC excluded the Philippines and a large part of Indonesia while including Ceylon. However, by the late 1970s, a roughly standard usage of the term "Southeast Asia" and the territories it encompasses had emerged.

Ethnic groups of Southeast Asia

The Aslians and Negritos were believed as one of the earliest inhabitant in the region. They are genetically related to the Papuans in Eastern Indonesia, East Timor and Australian Aborigines. In modern times, the Javanese are the largest ethnic group in Southeast Asia, with more than 100 million people, mostly concentrated in Java, Indonesia. The second largest ethnic group in Southeast Asia is Vietnamese (Kinh people) with around 86 million population, mainly inhabiting in Vietnam, thus forming a significant minority in neighboring Cambodia and Laos. The Thais is also a significant ethnic group with around 59 million population forming the majority in Thailand. In Burma, the Burmese account for more than two-thirds of the ethnic stock in this country, with the Indo-Aryan Rohingya make up a significant minority in Rakhine State. Indonesia is clearly dominated by the Javanese and Sundanese ethnic groups, with hundreds of ethnic minorities inhabited the archipelago, including Madurese, Minangkabau, Bugis, Balinese, Dayak, Batak and Malays. While Malaysia is split between more than half Malays and one-quarter Chinese, and also Indian minority in the West Malaysia however Dayaks make up the majority in Sarawak and Kadazan-dusun makes up the majority in Sabah which are in the East Malaysia. The Malays are the majority in West Malaysia and Brunei, while they forming a significant minority in Indonesia, Southern Thailand, East Malaysia and Singapore. In city-state Singapore, Chinese are the majority, yet the city is a multicultural melting pot with Malays, Indians and Eurasian also called the island their home.The Chams form a significant minority in Central and South Vietnam, also in Central Cambodia. While the Khmers are the majority in Cambodia, and form a significant minority in Southern Vietnam and Thailand, the Hmong people are the minority in Vietnam, China and Laos.Within the Philippines, the Tagalog, Visayan (mainly Cebuanos, Warays and Hiligaynons), Ilocano, Bicolano, Moro (mainly Tausug, Maranao, and Maguindanao) and Central Luzon (mainly Kapampangan and Pangasinan) groups are significant.

Culture of Southeast Asia

The culture in Southeast Asia is very diverse: on mainland Southeast Asia, the culture is a mix of Burmese, Cambodian, Laotian and Thai (Indian) and Vietnamese (Chinese) cultures. While in Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore and Malaysia the culture is a mix of indigenous Austronesian, Indian, Islamic, Western, and Chinese cultures. Also Brunei shows a strong influence from Arabia. Vietnam and Singapore show more Chinese influence[140] in that Singapore, although being geographically a Southeast Asian nation, is home to a large Chinese majority and Vietnam was in China's sphere of influence for much of its history. Indian influence in Singapore is only evident through the Tamil migrants,[141] which influenced, to some extent, the cuisine of Singapore. Throughout Vietnam's history, it has had no direct influence from India – only through contact with the Thai, Khmer and Cham peoples. Moreover, Vietnam is also categorized under the East Asian cultural sphere along with China, Korea, and Japan due to the large amount of Chinese influence embedded in their culture and lifestyle. 

ARTS in Southeast Asia

The arts of Southeast Asia have affinity with the arts of other areas. Dance in much of Southeast Asia includes movement of the hands as well as the feet, to express the dance's emotion and meaning of the story that the ballerina is going to tell the audience. Most of Southeast Asia introduced dance into their court; in particular, Cambodian royal ballet represented them in the early 7th century before the Khmer Empire, which was highly influenced by Indian Hinduism. Apsara Dance, famous for strong hand and feet movement, is a great example of Hindu symbolic dance.

MUSIC in Southeast Asia

Traditional music in Southeast Asia is as varied as its many ethnic and cultural divisions. Main styles of traditional music can be seen: Court music, folk music, music styles of smaller ethnic groups, and music influenced by genres outside the geographic region. Of the court and folk genres, Gong chime ensembles and orchestras make up the majority (the exception being lowland areas of Vietnam). Gamelan and Angklung orchestras from Indonesia, Piphat /Pinpeat ensembles of Thailand and Cambodia and the Kulintang ensembles of the southern Philippines, Borneo, Sulawesi and Timor are the three main distinct styles of musical genres that have influenced other traditional musical styles in the region. String instruments also are popular in the region. On 18 November 2010, UNESCO officially recognized angklung as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, and encourage Indonesian people and government to safeguard, transmit, promote performances and to encourage the craftsmanship of angklung making.

WRITING in Southeast Asia

The history of Southeast Asia has led to a wealth of different authors, from both within and without writing about the region. Originally, Indians were the ones who taught the native inhabitants about writing. This is shown through Brahmic forms of writing present in the region such as the Balinese script shown on split palm leaf called lontar. The antiquity of this form of writing extends before the invention of paper around the year 100 in China. Note each palm leaf section was only several lines, written longitudinally across the leaf, and bound by twine to the other sections. The outer portion was decorated. The alphabets of Southeast Asia tended to be abugidas, until the arrival of the Europeans, who used words that also ended in consonants, not just vowels. Other forms of official documents, which did not use paper, included Javanese copperplate scrolls. This material would have been more durable than paper in the tropical climate of Southeast Asia. In Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore, the Malay language is now generally written in the Latin script. The same phenomenon is present in Indonesian, although different spelling standards are utilised  (e.g. 'Teksi' in Malay and 'Taksi' in Indonesian for the word 'Taxi'). The use of Chinese characters, in the past and present, is only evident in Vietnam and more recently, Singapore and Malaysia. The adoption of Chinese characters in Vietnam dates back to around 111 B.C., when it was occupied by the Chinese. A Vietnamese script called Chữ Nôm used modified Chinese characters to express the Vietnamese language. Both classical Chinese and Chữ Nôm were used up until the early 20th century. However, the use of the Chinese script has been in decline, especially in Singapore and Malaysia as the younger generations are in favour of the Latin Script.

EAST ASIA 

East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms.The modern states of East Asia include China, Hong Kong, Japan, Macau, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. The East Asian states of China, North Korea, South Korea and Taiwan are all unrecognized by at least one other East Asian state due to severe ongoing political tensions in the region, specifically the division of Korea and the political status of Taiwan. Hong Kong and Macau, two small coastal quasi-dependent territories located in the south of China, are officially highly autonomous but are under de jure Chinese sovereignty. North Asia borders East Asia's north, Southeast Asia the south, South Asia the southwest and Central Asia the west. To the east is the Pacific Ocean and to the southeast is Micronesia (a Pacific Ocean island group, classified as part of Oceania). Countries such as Singapore and Vietnam are also considered a part of the East Asian cultural sphere due to its cultural, religious, and ethnic similarities. 

East Asia was one of the cradles of world civilisation, with China developing its first civilizations at about the same time as Egypt, Babylonia and India. China stood out as a leading civilization for thousands of years, building great cities and developing various technologies which were to be unmatched in the West until centuries later. The Han and Tang dynasties in particular are regarded as the golden ages of Chinese civilization, during which China was not only strong militarily, but also saw the arts and sciences flourish in Chinese society. It was also during these periods that China exported much of its culture to its neighbors, and till this day, one can notice Chinese influences in the traditional cultures of Vietnam, Korea and Japan. Korea and Japan had historically been under the Chinese cultural sphere of influence, adopting the Chinese script, and incorporating Chinese religion and philosophy into their traditional culture. Nevertheless, both cultures retain many distinctive elements which make them unique in their own right.

EAST ASIAN ARTS

East Asian arts, the visual arts, performing arts, and music of China, Korea (North Korea and South Korea), and Japan. (The literature of this region is treated in separate articles on Chinese literature, Korean literature, and Japanese literature.) Some studies of East Asia also include the cultures of the Indochinese peninsula and adjoining islands, as well as Mongolia to the north. The logic of this occasional inclusion is based on a strict geographic definition as well as a recognition of common bonds forged through the acceptance of Buddhism by many of these cultures. China, Korea, and Japan, however, have been uniquely linked for several millennia by a common written language and by broad cultural and political connections that have ranged in spirit from the uncritically adorational to the contentious. 

SOUTH AND WEST ASIA

A region marked by social and cultural diversity, South and West Asia is also identified by its economic potential and growth. The region is valued for its supply of low cost goods, services and skilled labour to the global economy but at the same time, it is notorious for the payment of low wages, appalling working conditions and trafficking of labour. This changing economic landscape has had a corresponding impact on the social and geographic fabric of the region. Rural families are moving to cities and urbanization is creating mega cities with an increasing number of slums, poor sanitation and massive pollutions. Large infrastructure and development projects have led to increased forced evictions and displacement. India and Nepal are two of the highest ranking countries for child malnutrition in the world. In the Maldives, migrants represent almost one quarter of the population, creating major social challenges. 

Significantly, all nine members of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation have civilian democratic systems of governance, however in some, key institutions remain fragile, democratic cultures remain weak and the military retains a powerful role. The status of ratification of international human rights instruments shows a good commitment among South Asian countries to the universally recognized human rights norms and standards. This is however nuanced by the introduction of reservations and interpretative declarations and delays in reporting to treaty bodies. The absence of adequate and effective national protection systems to ensure accountability is a common issue across South Asian States where torture, ill-treatment, corruption and impunity remain major concerns. Although six countries in the region have established national institutions, only half of them maintain “A” status and there is no regional human rights mechanism. In addition, manifestations of socially and politically entrenched discrimination on the basis of ethnicity, religion, gender, caste and sexual preference have rendered certain groups vulnerable and disempowered. Women are assuming new economic and social roles but continue to face deeply rooted discrimination and violence.

ANGLO-AMERICA AND EUROPE

Anglo-America (also referred to as Anglo-Saxon America) most often refers to a region in the Americas in which English is a main language and British culture and the British Empire have had significant historical, ethnic, linguistic and cultural impact. Anglo-America is distinct from Latin America, a region of the Americas where Romance languages (Spanish, Portuguese and French) are prevalent. 

The Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections has considerable holdings in Anglo-American literature from the 17th century onward, with notable strengths in the 18th century, Romanticism, and the Victorian and modern periods. Among the seventeenth-century holdings is a complete set of the Shakespeare folios, and works by John Milton and his contemporaries. Eighteenth-century highlights include near comprehensive printed collections of Jonathan Swift and Alexander Pope, and substantial holdings on John Dryden, Samuel Johnson, Joseph Addison, Sir Richard Steele, William Cowper, Fanny Burney, and others. Related materials include complete runs of periodicals, such as the Spectator and the Tatler. The Division’s book holdings are also especially rich in the literature of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The Cornell Wordsworth Collection, the second largest Wordsworth collection in the world, documents the Romantic movement in detail. All the major “standard” authors of the Victorian and modern periods, such as Charles Dickens, George Eliot, T.S. Eliot, W.B. Yeats, Joseph Conrad, James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, et al., are well represented. In addition, the library’s holdings in Victorian fiction include scarce works by many popular women authors of the time, such as Elizabeth Gaskell, Maria Edgeworth, Marie Corelli, Ouida, and Helen Mathers. The collection also includes many popular literary genres such as gift annuals, dime novels, railroad novels, and yellowbacks, as well as the small literary magazine of the 1920s and 1930s. The modern collection features strong collections of manuscripts and books by George Bernard Shaw, Rudyard Kipling, Ford Madox Ford, Wyndham Lewis, and James Joyce. In support of RMC’s Human Sexuality Collection, the rare book collections feature especially strong representations of literary works by gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender writers, such as Oscar Wilde, Christopher Isherwood, Vita Sackville-West, Radclyffe Hall, E.M. Forster, W.H. Auden, Ronald Firbank, Edith Sitwell, Elizabeth Bowen, Jan Morris, and others. The collection’s strengths in more recent British literature include the works of Sylvia Plath, Ted Hughes, Philip Larkin, and Doris Lessing, to name just a few.

AFRICA

Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area and 20% of its land area. With 1.3 billion people as of 2018, it accounts for about 16% of the world's human population. Africa's population is the youngest amongst all the continents; the median age in 2012 was 19.7, when the worldwide median age was 30.4. Despite a wide range of natural resources, Africa is the least wealthy continent per capita, in part due to geographic impediments, legacies of European colonization in Africa and the Cold War,undemocratic rule and deleterious policies. Despite this low concentration of wealth, recent economic expansion and the large and young population make Africa an important economic market in the broader global context. 

Early human civilizations, such as Ancient Egypt and Phoenicia emerged in North Africa. Following a subsequent long and complex history of civilizations, migration and trade, Africa hosts a large diversity of ethnicities, cultures and languages. The last 400 years have witnessed an increasing European influence on the continent. Starting in the 16th century, this was driven by trade, including the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, which created large African diaspora populations in the Americas. In the late 19th century, European countries colonized almost all of Africa, extracting resources from the continent and exploiting local communities; most present states in Africa emerged from a process of decolonisation in the 20th century.

African literature, the body of traditional oral and written literatures in Afro-Asiatic and African languages together with works written by Africans in European languages. Traditional written literature, which is limited to a smaller geographic area than is oral literature, is most characteristic of those sub-Saharan cultures that have participated in the cultures of the Mediterranean. In particular, there are written literatures in both Hausa and Arabic, created by the scholars of what is now northern Nigeria, and the Somali people have produced a traditional written literature. There are also works written in Geʿez (Ethiopic) and Amharic, two of the languages of Ethiopia, which is the one part of Africa where Christianity has been practiced long enough to be considered traditional. Works written in European languages date primarily from the 20th century onward. The literature of South Africa in English and Afrikaans is also covered in a separate article, South African literature.

LATIN AMERICA

Latin America is a group of countries and dependencies in the Western Hemisphere where Romance languages such as Spanish, Portuguese, and French are predominantly spoken. Some subnational regions such as Quebec and parts of the United States where Romance languages are primarily spoken are not included due to the countries as a whole being a part of Anglo America (an exception to this is Puerto Rico, which is almost always included within the definition of Latin America despite being a territory of the United States). The term is broader than categories such as Hispanic America which specifically refers to Spanish-speaking countries or Ibero-America which specifically refers to both Spanish and Portuguese-speaking countries. The term is also more recent in origin. 

The term "Latin America" was first used in an 1856 conference with the title "Initiative of America. Idea for a Federal Congress of the Republics" (Iniciativa de la América. Idea de un Congreso Federal de las Repúblicas), by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao. The term was further popularised by French emperor Napoleon III's government in the 1860s as Amérique latine to justify France's military involvement in Mexico and try to include French-speaking territories in the Americas such as French Canada, French Louisiana, or French Guiana, in the larger group of countries where Spanish and Portuguese languages prevailed. 

Origins

There is no universal agreement on the origin of the term Latin America. Some historians[citation needed] believe that the term was created by geographers in the 16th century to refer to the parts of the New World colonized by Spain and Portugal, whose Romance languages derive from Latin. Others argue that the term arose in 1860s France during the reign of Napoleon III, as part of the attempt to create a French empire in the Americas.[11] The idea that a part of the Americas has a linguistic affinity with the Romance cultures as a whole can be traced back to the 1830s, in the writing of the French Saint-Simonian Michel Chevalier, who postulated that this part of the Americas was inhabited by people of a "Latin race", and that it could, therefore, ally itself with "Latin Europe", ultimately overlapping the Latin Church, in a struggle with "Teutonic Europe", "Anglo-Saxon America" and "Slavic Europe" 

In 1804, Haiti became the first Latin American nation to gain independence, following a violent slave revolt led by Toussaint L'ouverture on the French colony of Saint-Domingue. The victors abolished slavery. Haitian independence inspired independence movements in Spanish America. y the end of the eighteenth century, Spanish and Portuguese power waned on the global scene as other European powers took their place, notably Britain and France. Resentment grew among the majority of the population in Latin America over the restrictions imposed by the Spanish government, as well as the dominance of native Spaniards (Iberian-born Peninsulares) in the major social and political institutions. Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808 marked a turning point, compelling Criollo elites to form juntas that advocated independence. Also, the newly independent Haiti, the second oldest nation in the New World after the United States, further fueled the independence movement by inspiring the leaders of the movement, such as Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla of Mexico, Simón Bolívar of Venezuela and José de San Martín of Argentina, and by providing them with considerable munitions and troops.Fighting soon broke out between juntas and the Spanish colonial authorities, with initial victories for the advocates of independence. Eventually, these early movements were crushed by the royalist troops by 1810, including those of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla in Mexico in the year 1810. Later on Francisco de Miranda in Venezuela by 1812. Under the leadership of a new generation of leaders, such as Simón Bolívar "The Liberator", José de San Martín of Argentina, and other Libertadores in South America, the independence movement regained strength, and by 1825, all Spanish America, except for Puerto Rico and Cuba, had gained independence from Spain. In the same year in Mexico, a military officer, Agustín de Iturbide, led a coalition of conservatives and liberals who created a constitutional monarchy, with Iturbide as emperor. This First Mexican Empire was short-lived, and was followed by the creation of a republic in 1823.

Latin American literature consists of the oral and written literature of Latin America in several languages, particularly in Spanish, Portuguese, and the indigenous languages of the Americas as well as literature of the United States written in the Spanish language. It rose to particular prominence globally during the second half of the 20th century, largely due to the international success of the style known as magical realism. As such, the region's literature is often associated solely with this style, with the 20th Century literary movement known as Latin American Boom, and with its most famous exponent, Gabriel García Márquez. Latin American literature has a rich and complex tradition of literary production that dates back many centuries.

by; MICHELL ANN C. CATALAN

[milkteaphilippines-blog]

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[silkpunk]

The problem is the same for all three superstates. It is absolutely necessary to their structure that there should be no contact with foreigners, except, to a limited extent, with war prisoners and coloured slaves. Even the official ally of the moment is always regarded with the darkest suspicion. War prisoners apart, the average citizen of Oceania never sets eyes on a citizen of either Eurasia or Eastasia, and he is forbidden the knowledge of foreign languages. If he were allowed contact with foreigners he would discover that they are creatures similar to himself and that most of what he has been told about them is lies. The sealed world in which he lives would be broken, and the fear, hatred, and self-righteousness on which his morale depends might evaporate. It is therefore realized on all sides that however often Persia, or Egypt, or Java, or Ceylon may change hands, the main frontiers must never be crossed by anything except bombs.

George Orwell, 1984

[hspfarm]

Review tinh dầu sả có tốt không? tác dụng là gì? giá bao nhiêu?mua ở đâu?

Nếu bạn hỏi mình loại tinh dầu nào được sử dụng phổ biến nhất tại Việt Nam hiện nay? Câu trả lời chắc chắn câu trả lời sẽ là: tinh dầu sả. Trong bài này mình sẽ cùng bạn tìm hiểu về loại tinh dầu vô cùng quen thuộc này liệu tinh dầu sả có tốt không? tác dụng là gì? giá bao nhiêu?mua ở đâu uy tín?.

Tinh dầu sả là gì?

Hình ảnh về cây sả

Tinh dầu sả được chiết xuất từ thân và lá của cây sả bằng phương pháp chưng cất hơi nước. Tên khoa học của cây sả là Cymbopogon nardus. Tên tiếng Anh của tinh dầu sả là Citronella essential oil, bạn cần phân biệt nó với tinh dầu sả chanh có tên tiếng Anh là Lemongrass essential oil.

Loại tinh dầu này đã được sử dụng trong nhiều thế kỷ ở Trung Quốc, Sri Lanka, Đông Nam Á trong đó có Việt Nam. Nó chủ yếu được sử dụng để xua đuổi côn trùng, giảm viêm, giảm đau.

Hiện có khoảng 30 loài Cymbopogon mọc hoang dại khắp nơi trên thế giới. Nhưng chỉ có 3 loại chính được sử dụng để tạo ra tinh dầu nguyên chất đó là:

Tinh dầu sả Ceylon

Tinh dầu sả Java

Tinh dầu sả chanh.

Mô hình cách tinh chế tinh dầu sả

Mô hình cách điều chế tinh dầu sả nguyên chất bằng phương pháp chưng cất

Những nguyên liệu cần chuẩn bị để làm tinh dầu sả tại nhà

Bạn cần chuẩn bị những vật liệu dưới đây khi làm tinh dầu sả:

1 nắm củ sả tươi. Nên chọn những cây sả 10 – 12 tháng tuổi để có nhiều tinh dầu, đồng thời mùi thơm từ loại sả này cũng dịu nhẹ hơn rất nhiều

Một hũ thủy tinh to có nắp đậy

Rượu vodka hoặc rượu đế loại tốt, ngoài ra bạn cũng có thể dùng dấm táo

Nước sạch.

Cách làm tinh dầu sả tuyệt đối an toàn

Để được thành phẩm tinh dầu sả an toàn để sử dụng bạn làm theo hướng dẫn dưới đây:

Sả đập dập vừa phải tránh để mất tinh dầu

Lột bỏ lớp vỏ sả bên ngoài, để lại phần củ trắng (dùng như khi nấu ăn), sau đó rửa sạch và đập nhẹ cho thân sả hơi dập nát. Không nên đập quá dập vì sẽ làm mất lượng tinh dầu

Xếp các khúc sả vào đến ngang nửa một hũ thủy tinh đã rửa sạch và lau khô.

Pha hỗn hợp dung dịch bao gồm rượu và nước theo tỉ lệ 1:1, sau đó đổ ngập dung dịch này vào hủ thủy tinh chứa sả.

Đậy kín hũ sả và dung dịch rượu và để nơi khô ráo, thoáng mát không có ánh nắng mặt trời trong 3 ngày.

Sau 3 ngày cho tất cả hỗn hợp sả+ dung dịch rượu vào máy xay say nhuyễn, rồi lại trút tất cả trở lại hũ thủy tinh, đậy kín và tiếp tục bảo quản trong vòng 3 tuần

Sau 3 tuần khi sả đã tiết hết tinh dầu ra, bạn dùng khăn sạch để lọc bã, phần dung dịch còn lại sẽ là tinh dâu sả an toàn cho bạn để sử dụng.

Tuy nhiên đây là hỗn hợp bao gồm tinh dầu sả nguyên chất và nước, do đó, để thu dược tinh dầu sả nguyên chất bạn sẽ cần trải qua một quá trình chưng cất tinh dầu nguyên chất thêm nữa.

Cách chưng cất tinh dầu sả nguyên chất

Để thu được tinh dầu sả nguyên chất để sử dụng, bạn cần phải có thiết bị đặc biệt hỗ trợ. Nhìn chung, làm tinh dầu sả thì dễ, nhưng để thu được tinh dầu sả nguyên chất lại là vấn đề hoàn toàn khác.

Vắt tinh dầu vào trong một khay có chứa nước sạch. Đổ hỗn hợp này vào một cái chai và đóng nắp lại. Khi đó, tinh dầu sẽ nổi lên bề mặt nước. Dốc ngược chai xuống, phần tinh dầu sẽ tiếp tục nổi lên trên mặt nước, mở nắp chai cho phần nước chảy xuống dần sao cho giữ lại được phần tinh dầu. Số lượng tinh dầu thu được nhiều hay ít tùy thuộc vào khối lượng, chất lượng của phần vỏ mà bạn dùng và sự khéo léo của bạn. Phần tinh dầu thu được lúc này có thể pha vào nước để tắm, xông; đốt đèn khuếch tán tạo hương trong phòng; dưỡng tóc, massage (pha thêm với dầu dẫn xuất)…

Tinh dầu sả có tốt không? Tác dụng là gì?

Thuốc đuổi côn trùng tự nhiên tốt nhất hiện nay

Loại tinh dầu này đã được đăng ký là thuốc chống côn trùng có nguồn gốc thực vật ở Mỹ vào năm 1948. Thậm chí nó còn được chứng minh là có khả năng đẩy lùi loài muỗi Aedes aegypti. Một loài muỗi làm lây lan bệnh sốt xuất huyết và virus zika.

Theo một nghiên cứu, để duy trì tác dụng xua đuổi muỗi hay côn trùng của tinh dầu sả bạn cần phải bôi lại nó cứ 30-60 phút một lần. Bạn có thể dùng nó bằng cách pha với tinh dầu dừa rồi thoa lên da hoặc cho vào bình để xịt lên quần áo, tóc.

Giảm căng thẳng

Các nghiên cứu đã chỉ ra rằng, tinh dầu sả có khả năng kích thích hoạt động của hệ thần giao cảm, góp phần làm giảm căng thẳng, giải tỏa stress. Để sử dụng tác dụng này, bạn hãy khuếch tán tinh dầu khắp phòng hoặc hít mỗi khi cảm thấy căng thẳng, mệt mỏi.

Giảm đau

Tinh dầu sả có chứa các hợp chất có tác dụng chống lại các gốc tự do, nhờ vậy mà nó có khả năng ngăn ngừa quá trình oxy hóa. Nhiều nghiên cứu đã phát hiện ra một chất dễ bay hơi có trong tinh dầu sả tên là geraniol, có khả năng chống lại quá trình oxy hóa từ đó chống lại các gốc tự do (nguyên nhân gây bệnh và làm tổn thương tế bào).

Chính nhờ đặc tính này, bạn có thể loại tinh dầu này để làm thuốc giảm đau tự nhiên. Áp dụng rất tốt cho các trường hợp đau cơ, đau khớp.

Tiêu diệt ký sinh trùng đường ruột

Nghiên cứu cho thấy hoạt tính geraniol có trong tinh dầu sả có khả năng tiêu diệt các loại ký trùng có trong đường ruột. Cụ thể là các loại giun sán. Điều quan trọng là nó hoàn toàn an toàn và không gây hại gì cho vật chủ.

Dầu gội, dầu sả tự nhiên

Đây cũng là một trong những ứng dụng rất phổ biến của tinh dầu sả. Nó giúp làm sạch da đầu, tóc, loại bỏ nhờn và gàu khá hiệu quả.

Kháng khuẩn, kháng nấm

Bạn có thể dùng tinh dầu sả để bảo vệ da khỏi sự tấn công của vi khuẩn và nấm. Nó hiệu quả với tình trạng viêm da, nhiễm nấm candida, nấm móng, vết thương, vết loét.

Những lưu ý khi sử dụng tinh dầu sả nguyên chất

Cách sử dụng tinh dầu sả

Sử dụng máy khuếch tán tinh dầu hoặc đèn xông tinh dầu để khuếch tán tinh dầu khắp căn phòng của bạn. Cách này giúp xua đuổi muỗi, côn trùng, làm sạch không khí, tiêu diệt nấm mốc và vi khuẩn.

Thoa lên da, tóc: Trước khi thoa bạn hãy pha loãng nó với tinh dầu dừa với tỷ lệ 1:1.

Thêm vào dầu gội, xà phòng tắm hoặc nước tắm.

Cho khoảng 30 – 40 giọt tinh dầu sả, tinh dầu bạch đàn, hương thảo vào một bình xịt chứa 500ml nước tinh khiết. Bạn có thể dùng dung dịch này để xịt phòng, vệ sinh những vị trí trong nhà bếp.

Tinh dầu sả một trong những loại tinh dầu được sử dụng phổ biến nhất hiện nay

Sử dụng tinh dầu sả có an toàn không?

Câu trả lời là hoàn toàn an toàn với sức khỏe kể cả khi bạn sử dụng nó thường xuyên trong một thời gian dài.

Loại tinh dầu này an toàn với người lớn và trẻ em trên 6 tháng tuổi. Với trẻ dưới 6 tháng tuổi bạn cần tham khảo ý kiến của bác sỹ trước khi dùng.

Tinh dầu sả không được khuyến cáo sử dụng cho phụ nữ mang thai

Tinh dầu sả không được khuyến cáo sử dụng bằng cách ăn hoặc uống.

Mua tinh dầu sả chính hãng ở đâu? giá bao nhiêu?

Hiện nay tinh dầu sả được bán phổ biến trên thị trường tại các cửa hàng, shop mỹ phẩm hay các trang thương mại điện tử. Giá bán tinh dầu sả đa dạng, phong phú theo từng loại tinh dầu. Dưới đây là tổng hợp một số tinh dầu sả tốt trên thị trường hiện nay:

Tinh dầu sả Java Milaganics 10ml: 45.000 đồng

Tinh dầu sả Java NEOP 10ml: 25.000 đồng

Tinh dầu sả Java Julyhouse 10ml: 45.000 đồng

Tinh dầu sả Bé Thơ 100ml: 70.000 đồng

Trên đây là một số chia sẻ về tinh dầu sả, một loại tinh dầu rất phổ biến hiện nay. Mong rằng những chia sẻ này có ích với bạn, chúc bạn luôn có một sức khỏe tốt!

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