#mediaeval Lower Countries

[geschiedenisish]

Dutch 1500s witchcraft

I saw a lot of satanic posts on my feed today, so I thought I'd just drop this Dutch prayer here I found in a 1500s book;

“I adjure you, Ashtaroth, by the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, and by the Virgin Mary and by holy obedience, etc., that as long as this candle burns, through the fire, N., the daughter of N. becomes inflamed and burns with love and desire for me, so that she neither wakes nor sleeps nor eats nor drinks nor does anything until she has submitted herself to my will.” (In the places of N you need to fill in the relevant names.)

“Ik bezweer u, Astaroth, by de Vader en de Zoon en de H. Geest, en by de Maagd Maria en by de heilige gehoorzaamheid enz. dat, zolang deze kaars brandt door het vuur, N., de dochter van N. ontstoken wordt en brandt van liefde en begeerte voor my, zodat ze niet waakt of slaapt, eet of drinkt, of wat anders doet totdat ze zich aan myn wil heeft onderworpen.”

Source; "Middeleeuwse witte en zwarte magie in het Nederlands taalgebied" (Medieval white and black magic in the Dutch language area) written in 1997 by historian Willy L. Braekman.

The book is full of examples of how Dutch witchcraft was truely practised in the Mediaeval and Early Modern Netherlands. (The book is in Dutch, but is fully in txt form so you can easily put Google Translate on it.) So not the stuff that innocent women were accused of, but how people truely used magic to improve their lives.

Most of it is little things against small pains, finding lost things or stuff like that. But one of the biggest claims was the above prayer that can get you a girl. (Or a boy of course. Just replace 'daughter' with 'son'.)

Hope y'all can enjoy it and put some use out of it! :)

Also out of the book as a whole! I highly recommend the book to anyone interested in witchcraft and how our ancestors truely practised it in the past. <3 (It was more nuanced and interesting than the outrageous accusations thrown at innocent women.)

[communist-manifesto-daily]

Socialism: Utopian and Scientific - Part 7

[ First | Prev | Table of Contents | Next ]

1892 English Edition Introduction - 2

History (the role of Religion) in the English middle-class

When Europe emerged from the Middle Ages, the rising middle-class of the towns constituted its revolutionary element. It had conquered a recognized position within mediaeval feudal organization, but this position, also, had become too narrow for its expansive power. The development of the middle-class, the bourgeoisie, became incompatible with the maintenance of the feudal system; the feudal system, therefore, had to fall.

But the great international centre of feudalism was the Roman Catholic Church. It united the whole of feudalized Western Europe, in spite of all internal wars, into one grand political system, opposed as much to the schismatic Greeks as to the Mohammedan countries. It had organized its own hierarchy on the feudal model, and, lastly, it was itself by far the most powerful feudal lord, holding, as it did, fully 1/3rd of the soil of the Catholic world. Before profane feudalism could be successfully attacked in each country and in detail, this, its sacred central organization, had to be destroyed.

Moreover, parallel with the rise of the middle-class went on the great revival of science; astronomy, mechanics, physics, anatomy, physiology were again cultivated. And the bourgeoisie, for the development of its industrial production, required a science which ascertained the physical properties of natural objects and the modes of action of the forces of Nature. Now up to then science had but been the humble handmaid of the Church, had not been allowed to overlap the limits set by faith, and for that reason had been no science at all. Science rebelled against the Church; the bourgeoisie could not do without science, and, therefore, had to join in the rebellion.

The above, though touching but two of the points where the rising middle-class was bound to come into collision with the established religion, will be sufficient to show, first, that the class most directly interested in the struggle against the pretensions of the Roman Church was the bourgeoisie; and second, that every struggle against feudalism, at that time, had to take on a religious disguise, had to be directed against the Church in the first instance. But if the universities and the traders of the cities started the cry, it was sure to find, and did find, a strong echo in the masses of the country people, the peasants, who everywhere had to struggle for their very existence with their feudal lords, spiritual and temporal. The long fight of the bourgeoisie against feudalism culminated in three great, decisive battles.

The first was what is called the Protestant Reformation in Germany. The war cry raised against the Church, by Luther, was responded to by two insurrections of a political nature; first, that of the lower nobility under Franz von Sickingen (1523), then the great Peasants' War, 1525. Both were defeated, chiefly in consequence of the indecision of the parties most interested, the burghers of the towns – an indecision into the causes of which we cannot here enter. From that moment, the struggle degenerated into a fight between the local princes and the central power, and ended by blotting out Germany, for 200 years, from the politically active nations of Europe. The Lutheran Reformation produced a new creed indeed, a religion adapted to absolute monarchy. No sooner were the peasant of North-east Germany converted to Lutheranism than they were from freemen reduced to serfs.

But where Luther failed, Calvin won the day. Calvin's creed was one fit for the boldest of the bourgeoisie of his time. His predestination doctrine was the religious expression of the fact that in the commercial world of competition success or failure does not depend upon a man's activity or cleverness, but upon circumstances uncontrollable by him. It is not of him that willeth or of him that runneth, but of the mercy of unknown superior economic powers; and this was especially true at a period of economic revolution, when all old commercial routes and centres were replaced by new ones, when India and America were opened to the world, and when even the most sacred economic articles of faith – the value of gold and silver – began to totter and to break down. Calvin's church constitution of God was republicanized, could the kingdoms of this world remains subject to monarchs, bishops, and lords? While German Lutheranism became a willing tool in the hands of princes, Calvinism founded a republic in Holland, and active republican parties in England, and, above all, Scotland.

[ First | Prev | Table of Contents | Next ]

[portfolioleticiasepulveda]

Ukrainian Joan of Arc: Businesswoman leaves jewellery store to fight as a sniper

Emerald Evgeniya returned to wear Army uniform after 12 years to fight against the Russians, and is the only woman among 100 men in the special forces troop

Article published in March 16th 2022.

Translated from Portuguese to English.

R7 PORTAL - Journalistic scoop.

https://noticias.r7.com/internacional/joana-darc-ucraniana-empresaria-abandona-loja-de-joias-para-lutar-na-guerra-como-sniper-27062022/

Emerald Evgeniya holds weapon after returning to the Ukrainian Army

Before the Russian invasion in Ukraine, Emerald Evgeniya had a quiet life with her daughter

in Kiev, where she used to run her own jewellery store. The Ukrainian decided 12 years ago to leave the Army to become a “businesswoman”, as she likes to say.

“As soon as the war started, I quit my career and went back to the Army. Now, I work for the Special Forces intelligence and serve as a sniper. I’m the only woman among a hundred soldiers,” she says.

A sniper has a great responsibility on the battlefield and undergoes intense training to reach the rank. The weapon used by the soldier allows hitting targets very far away. Hitting an enemy with a lower risk of being counterattacked is one of the perks.

“I fight because it is my duty and I believe in Ukraine's great future. I feel like I have been preparing for this situation all my life. Also, I get support, people call me the Ukrainian Joan of Arc.”

Emerald is among thousands of soldiers trying to protect Ukraine as long as they face Russian Armed Forces. The Ukrainian population helps as much as they can, and even resorts to using mediaeval weapons to contain enemy tanks. Caltrops are made with sharp iron spikes and are scattered around Kiev.

Men and women with little or no experience volunteer to receive training and equipment to face the Russians. Currently, anyone who wants to serve must be between 18 and 60 years old and have an Ukrainian passport.

Emerald says the most difficult moment of the war was when she finally came across the Russian Army. “I started shooting again and realised I was face to face with one of their soldiers. This happened on the second day of combat, I was scared, but now I understand that this is my reality.”

The business woman’s life has changed radically in the last 21 days, in the same way for millions of Ukrainians. “I used to have a life of luxury, today I only live with my military uniform, mobile phone, two pairs of socks and a pair of shoes. I have also made donations to many people who lost their homes. I think after the war, if I survive, I can earn that money back with my work.”

Emerald during military training

Since the Russian invasion, more than 3 million people have left Ukraine, according to the UN-linked International Organization for Migration (IOM). Around 1.4 million are children, and among them is Jasmine, 10, Emerald’s daughter. When the war started, the little girl was sent to Poland. 

“I’m in the Army because I want my daughter to live in a free country. I won’t leave until we win this war. I want peace and freedom for my family and for all Ukrainians,” explains Emerald.

Emerald and her daughter Jasmine

As the bombings advance and the soldiers try to prevent the capital, Kiev, representatives of the two countries are trying to reach an agreement. This Tuesday (15), Mykhailo Podoliak, negotiator and adviser to Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskiy, and Vladimir Medinsky, adviser to the Kremlin, resumed the fourth round of negotiations.

On the other hand, NATO members are spreading sanctions to increasingly isolate Russia. The sniper, however, believes that the way to contain the Russian advance would be the closure of Ukrainian airspace, which Zelenskiy has long requested. “We are strong in terrestrial space, but we are not safe in the sky.”

“I won’t leave until we win this war, and I believe Ukraine will be victorious,” added Emerald.

[famworldirl]

Exploring the Oldest Castles In Ireland: A Unique Experience With Host Family Hospitality

Ireland is an island country with extended records and many architectural marvels that take traffic lower back in time. The oldest castles in Ireland are amongst those treasures and everyone has a captivating records to proportion. Many vacationers pick out to live with local households even as they go to those ancient web sites on the way to fully immerse themselves in Irish subculture and records. This not only offers a taste of the traditional hospitality of the nation, but it also creates a more personal experience when touring Ireland's ancient castles.

Bunratty Castle: A Timeless Fortress

Located within the county of Clare, Bunratty Castle is considered one of Ireland's excellent preserved examples of a mediaeval Castle. A first rate technique to experience Bunratty Castle from the attitude of the locals is to live with a bunch circle of relatives in Ireland. It is customary for host families to enlighten guests about the history of the castle and provide navigational guidance. This increases the likelihood that the visit will have a lot of cultural meaning throughout.

Trim Castle: A Cinematic Marvel

Because of its legendary portrayal as the main character in the historically significant movie "Braveheart," it has become quite well-known. When guests stay with a local family in Ireland, they have the opportunity to discover the customs that have created the town of Trim, where they are staying. In order to provide their visitors with a well-rounded experience that extends beyond the castle walls, host families frequently accompany them to some of their favourite hidden gems, such as charming local locations and tiny bars.

Cahir Castle: A Riverside Beauty

Staying with a host family is the best option if you want to fully immerse yourself in Irish culture while visiting Cahir Castle. When visitors live at family's house, they could show them around the locality and percentage thrilling memories approximately the castle's importance in Irish history, supplying them with a complete know-how of the area.

Rock of Cashel: A Celtic Gem

An as soon as-in-a-lifetime opportunity to interact with the locals and find out the history of Ireland and the Rock of Cashel is to stay with an Irish own family. There isn't always going to be each different threat like this one. When web hosting households discuss their private connections to the area, a extra intimate and personal analysis of the website may be performed.

Malahide Castle: A Coastal Retreat

When exploring Malahide Castle in Ireland, guests who pick out to live with local households will be able to study extra about the castle's past. When staying with host families, site visitors are confident an entire and immersive enjoy, in view that they may offer insightful commentary on the community, narrate stories of the castle's beyond, and suggest the finest times to visit.

Conclusion

Visiting some of the oldest castles in Ireland at colonias en ingles may take on entirely new meaning if you choose to stay with and get to know a host family. This vacation will be cherished memories for many years to come because of the blend of traditional Irish riches and true Irish kindness. This is true whether you're looking over Trim Castle's epic grandeur or dashing through the halls of Bunratty Castle.

[srishtipreneur]

PLACES TO VISIT IN SWITZERLAND

TOP 5 ATTRACTIVE PLACES YOU MUST VISIT IN SWITZERLAND

Matterhorn

The Matterhorn, Switzerland's iconic pointed peak is one of the highest mountains in the Alps. On the border with Italy, this legendary peak rises to 4,478 meters, and its four steep faces lie in the direction of the compass points. The first summiting in 1865 ended tragically when four climbers fell to their death during the descent. Today, thousands of experienced climbers come here each summer.

At the foot of this mighty peak, lies the charming village of Zermatt, a top international resort with horse-drawn carriage rides, quaint chalets, and world-class restaurants and hotels. To preserve the air quality and peaceful ambience, motorized vehicles are banned in the village.

In the winter, skiers can schuss down more than 300 kilometers of slopes. In the summer, swimming and tennis are popular pursuits, as well as hiking, biking, and climbing in the surrounding mountains. Summer glacier skiing is also available.

2. Jungfraujoch: The Top of Europe

The train ride to Jungfraujoch, the "Top of Europe," with an observation terrace and scientific observatory perched at 3,454 metres, is one of the most popular things to do in the beautiful Bernese Oberland. The Great Aletsch Glacier, Europe's longest glacier, begins at Jungfraujoch and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The famous Eiger Trail, which runs from the Eiger glacier station to Alpiglen, clings to the rocks at the north face.

3.Interlaken

Nestled between Lake Thun to the west and Lake Brienz to the east, Interlaken is one of Switzerland's most popular summer holiday resorts. In the center of town, Höhematte is a marvel of urban planning with 35 acres of open space. Flower gardens, hotels, and cafés surround the Höheweg, the main boulevard through here with breathtaking vistas of the mountains.

The Eiger, Mönch, and Jungfrau peaks tower above the town, providing excellent opportunities for alpine adventures. Hiking, climbing, abseiling, and kayaking are all popular activities.

More than 45 mountain railways, cable cars, chairlifts, and ski lifts transport visitors into the surrounding countryside and provide numerous opportunities for aerial sightseeing.

In the winter, skiers and snowboarders can choose from a variety of nearby resorts and cross-country ski along the extensive trail network. Paragliders take off from Beatenberg-Niederhorn in the summer. Take a paddle steamer cruise around the lakes to see the scenery from a lower elevation.

4. Lucerne

Consider a glistening blue lake surrounded by mountains, a car-free mediaeval old town, covered bridges, waterfront promenades, frescoed historic buildings, and sun-dappled plazas with bubbling fountains. It's no surprise that Lucerne (in German, Luzern) is a popular tourist destination.

This traditional Swiss town attracts renowned soloists, conductors, and orchestras to its annual International Music Festival. One of the world's leading concert halls can be found at the Culture and Convention Center.

The Chapel Bridge, built in the 14th century, is one of the city's most famous landmarks. The famous Lion Monument, a poignant sculpture of a dying lion, is located in a small park and honours the heroic death of Swiss Guards during the attack on the Tuileries during the French Revolution. History

5. Lake Geneva

Lake Geneva, Europe's largest Alpine lake, straddles the Swiss/French border and laps at the shores of several popular Swiss cities. The city of Geneva (in French Genève; in German Genf) is located at the confluence of the Rhône River and Lake Geneva.

The European seat of the United Nations, this French-speaking "capital of peace" exudes a pleasing blend of French joie de vivre and Swiss structure. The lake is surrounded by promenades, parks, and gardens, and the old town is a lovely place to stroll among the historic buildings. The Jet d'Eau, a famous landmark in Lake Geneva, shoots water 150 metres into the air. The Grand Théâtre and the Opera House are two cultural attractions.

[the-busy-ghost]

Honestly if nothing else those Hill & Adamson photos have really made me think about the stereotype of the peely-wally Scots, who shrivel and burn to a crisp like vampires when they see sun.

Because by the looks of things this stereotype, like so many other things in Scottish history (for example fixed clan tartans or women changing their surnames upon marriage or four fifths of Scots living in towns) seems like it was probably a development of the last 200 years alone.

[lailoken]

'A Short Disquisition Concerning Toad-lore'

"That remarkable native amphibian, the toad or paddock (Bufo bufo), has a longstanding and celebrated association with witchcraft in the British Isles and Europe, especially as a familiar-spirit. The reasons for the importance of the toad in mediaeval witchlore must ultimately be sought in esoteric folk-symbolism, mythopoetics and the psychopharmacology of rural sorcerers and hexe-wives.

The totemic significance of the toad in witchcraft is primarily due to it's intimacy with the subterranean marshes, caves and dark waters of Annwvyn. Thus the toad is a dweller in the fens of the underworld and is especiall holy to the chthonic divinities. The toad is equally at home in the waters or on solid land, passing at will from one realm to the other just as the witch-shaman crosses the boundaries between this world and the underworld. The toad, therefore is a shamanic creature, considered symbolically, who epitomises passage between the dimensions. In this respect it should be remembered that in the Celtic world-view, marshy pools and linns were entrance points to the lower world, the great below.

At the initiations of Basque witches new devotees were marked by the Devil or Horned God with the sign of the toad or toad's foot. In mediaeval lore the heraldic crest of the Devil was held to consist of three toads emblazoned on a shield, affirming the link with the powers of the netherworld. A toad hopping over a person's foot is an ominous sign of impending death. An old Mantuan name for the toad is 'fada' or 'faery', emphasising it's otherworldly nature. In the Pyrenees it was said that witches could be recognised by an image of a frog's foot in their left eye.

The witch-trials particularly highlight the toad's function as a familiar-spirit. In the Basse-Pyrenees new witches were given toads by the Dark One. At Windsor in 1579 it was reported that "one Mother Dutton dwellyng in Cleworthe Parishe keepeth a Spirite or Feende in the likeness of a Toade, and fedeth the same Feende liyng in a border of greene Hearbes, within her Garden, with blood....." Similarly in Essex a witch in 1582 was held to own "two spirits like Toades, the one called Tom, and the other Robbyn" which she had inherited from her mother. Seventeenth Century French witches were accused of possessing 'petit Diableteaux' in the form of toads. The Italian witch Billia la Castagna in 1365 kept a large toad under her bed whose excrement was used in potions. This last detail is very significant as it is actually a cryptic reference to 'toad-stools' or visionary fungi used in witch-practices, usually of the Fly Agaric species. All across Europe there occur folk-names forcertain mushrooms which link them with toads such as Crapaudin in French.

In Slavic countries inedible mushrooms are called Zabaci Huby - "toad- mushrooms". The folk-affinities between hallucinatory fungi and toads point to an ancient awareness of the presence of psychotropic toxins in the skin of the latter. Toads secrete a fluid from their skin which contains the indole alkaloid bufotenine. Bufotenine was extracted from the glands of toads in ancient China and the traditional witches of Europe were well-acquainted with the propertiesof this batrachian elixir.

The witch-covens of north-western Spain in the 16th Century used toads' blood in their flying ointments. In 1525 Maria of Ituren confessed to having concocted a flying-salve from toad-skins and water-plantain, no doubt mingled in an oily base. Swedish witches compounded their salves with toads' fat and snake-foam along with poisonous herbs. German covens reputedly fried the toads to prepare such ointments and toad-grease salves were also utilised by witches in Hungary and Easter Europe to attain the ecstasy of 'spirit-flight'.

The toad is also famous for bearing within his head the Toadstone, a magical gem which healed all bites and stings and which, when set in a ring, grew paler in the presence of poison. In 'As you Like It' Shakespeare makes his well known reference to the Toadstone:- "the toad, ugly and venomous, wears yet a precious jewel in his head".

This casts light on the emblem of the Black Toad in later Hermetic/alchemical literature as a glyph representing the 'earth of the philosophers' or 'first matter' which conceals within itself the wondrous Stone of the Wise.

In rural regions of England, such as Cambridgeshire, there operated a secret guild of men called the Toadmen who were reputed to exert a magical influence over horses. The Toadmen, like the secret society of the Horseman's Word, preserved many of the mysteries of the masculine side of the Craft of the Wise, honouring Old Hornie as the Master of the Beasts. To become a Toadman and gain the power a certain bone had to be obtained from a toad which was fixed to an anthill until the skeleton was entirely clean and devoid of flesh. The initiate then carried the bones in a pocket until they dried. On the stroke of midnight on the night of the full moon he cast the skeleton into a running stream: one bone would screech as it separated and floated downstream and this, when secured, conferred the supernatural powers of the Toadmen upon the bearer. Sometimes the new initiate had to take the bone to a stable or graveyard for three consecutive nights on the third night the Devil (Horned God) would appear and make a last attempt to trick the Toadman into parting with his bone as the final test of his shamanic initiation. According to some reports Charles Walton who was foully murdered in Lower Quinton, Warwickshire in 1945, was reputed by villagers to breed natterjack toads and use them in his magic - his garden was apparently thickly populated by them at the time of his death.

Toadmen were known to be practising their arts in Cambridgeshire as late as 1938 and it is not impossible that the cult may have survived clandestinely into the present day under a close shroud of rural secrecy. The toad's fertility aspects are to be clearly seen in the practices of the Auldearne coven in 1662 who performed a curious ceremony in which toads drew a plough made from the horn of a castrated ram with couch-grass for the harness. The coven went several times round a field with the toads 'praying to the Devil for the fruit of that land'. This seems to be a fragment of an ancient geomantic ritual to enhance telluric fertility. The classical author Pliny described how a toad should be placed in an earthenware pot and buried in a field to magically protect the crops from storms.

The Slavonic vampyre could appear in the guise of a frog and the paddock features heavily in [Romani] lore and tradition as a form of the Devil whose [Romani] name, Beng means “frog-like”. In Transylvanian [Romani] mythology the Queen of the Faeries lives in her remote mountain castle in the shape of a golden toad.

The recondite arcanae of toad-lore can be seen to illuminate the moste esoteric recesses of the Craft of the Wise as one of it's cardinal totemic symbols. It is thus fitting that the contemporary seeker again learns the marshland lore of the paddock as the People of the Toad did in times

past. It would seem prudent to hearken once again to his oracular croaking amidst the reeds at twilight and to pay heed to the chthonic wisdom from the haunted fens of Andumnos."

—

Call of the Horned Piper

by Nigel Aldrcroft Jackson

[inky-duchess]

Fantasy Guide to Feasts, Food and Drink

Picture yourself at a banquet held at the local Lord's castle. The music is playing, the people are chatting and rustling about in their best clothes. You sit at a table and what sits before you? Not chicken nuggets, my friend.

Food is always one of the staples of any world you build. You can get a feel of class, society and morality just by looking at the spread before you on the table.

Food for lower classes (Peasants)

Most peasants lived off the land, rearing flocks, tilling fields and tending orchards. If they lived near the sea, lakes, rivers or streams, they would fish. But since they lived on land owned by churches or lords, they would only be allowed a portion of what they grew. In cities, the peasants would buy food from one another at the market.

Peasants would make bread out of rye grain, that would make the bread very dark. In some communities they would make sourdough, which involves using a piece of dough you made the day before to make that day's bread.

Eggs were a source of food that was easy to come by as farmers kept chickens on hand.

Cheese and butter would be sold and used in the farm.

Jam would also be made as it was easy to preserve and sell.

Peasants would not eat much meat. Chickens made money by laying eggs, pigs could be fattened and sold for profit and cows and goats would be used for milk. By killing any of these animals for food they would loose a portion of money. Poaching (hunting on private land owned by the lord) would come with severe penalties.

Pottage and stew were a favourite of peasants as they could throw any vegetables or bit of meat or fish in a pot to cook for a few hours. It wasn't a difficult dish to make and often inexpensive.

Pies, pasties and pastries would be a favourite at inns and taverns in towns and cities most containing gravy, meat and vegetables.

With most villages and farms set close to forests, many peasants could find berries at the edge of fields. Blueberries, blackberries, raspberries would have all grown wild.

Food for Nobility & Royalty

Nobility and Royalty could always afford better food than the poor. However it might be a patch more unhealthy than the poor's fare. Nobility and Royalty weren't fans of vegetables.

The rich would eat a lot of meat, much of which they would hunt down themselves on their own land. Deer, wild boar, rabbits, turkey and other wild creatures would all be on the table.

Nobility and Royalty would be fond of fish as well. Lamprey eels was a delicacy only preserved for special occasions.

They could afford salt which was important for preserving meat and fish. This would allow the castle/manor/palace to be stocked in times of winter or famine.

They could also afford pepper and other spices, all of which could cost a fortune, to flavour their food.

During a feast, they would eat off of platters made of precious metals but only if you were seated at the high table. Other less important guests would eat off a trencher, a piece of hollowed out stale bread.

Sugar would be the height of dessert. The sugar would be shaped into fantastical formations to impress the noble guests. Tudor chefs would create edible sugar plates for Henry VIII to eat off of.

Swans and peacocks would be served in their plumage. Swans would be more royal diners as in England the monarch owns all the swans. In Ireland, it is illegal to kill a swan mainly because they could be children trapped in swan-bodies. Long story.

Feasts

At certain events, the noble/monarch might throw a party. Most parties would begin with a dinner.

The high table would seat the family throwing the party and the honoured guests. All the food would come to them first to be distributed to their favourites. They would drink the best wine and have the finest bread.

The rest of the hall would be seated together at trestle tables, eating off trenchers. They would be sent food by the thrower of the feast on account of their personal importance or social standing. The closer you were to the salt cellar, placed at the head of the table the more important you were. The further away you were, the lower your status.

Servants called cupbearers would serve wine and drink and move about the hall to carry jugs of wine to water the guests.

Dogs would often be found in the hall, to be fed scraps by the diners.

Drink

No world or party is complete without the booze. Since much of the water in Mediaeval times was putrid or dirty, the classes would avoid it.

Beer: was both a favourite of peasants and the nobility. It would be brewed in castles or in taverns and inns, each site having a different recipe and taste. It would be stored in barrels. Beer was widely available across the world and could be brewed at home. So therefore it was inexpensive.

The two main types of beer would be:

Ale: Ale in the middle ages referred to beer brewed without hops (a kind of flowering plant that gives beer its bitter taste). It is sweeter and would typically have a fruity aftertaste.

Stout: is a darker beer sometimes brewed from roasted malt, coming in a sweet version and dry version, the most famous stout being Guinness.

Wine: Wine would be made on site of vineyards and stored in cellars of large houses or castles. They would be expensive as they would have to be imported from regions capable of growing vines.

Port: Port wine or fortified wine would be made with distilled grape spirits. It is a sweet red wine, and also would be expensive to import from the counties able to grow the correct vines.

Whiskey: is a spirit made from distilled fermented grain mash in a device called a still (which would always be made of copper). The age of whiskey is determined by the length of time it has been sitting in a cask from the time it is made to the time its put in bottles. Whiskey was a favourite drink in colder climates and could be made any where in the world.

Rum: Rum is made by fermenting and distilling sugarcane molasses/juice. It is aged in oak barrels and would have to be imported as it could only be made in lands able to grow sugarcane.

Poitín: (pronounced as pot-cheen) is made from cereals, grain, whey, sugar beet, molasses and potatoes. It is a Dangerous Drink (honestly i still don't know how I ended up in that field with a traffic cone and a Shetland pony) and technically illegal. Country folk in Ireland used to brew it in secrets in stills hidden on their land.

[bookingvacation]

Bulgarian river navigation

Bulgarian river navigation is based in Rousse. Rousse port is one of the main links between Bulgarian and the Soviet Union, The Bridge of Friendship built in 1954, is extremely important for the country’s economy, Some 2.8 km long, its middle part can lift up at high tide. It is one of the Bulgarian- Romanian border check points. Buildings in the town centre show its prosperity in the beginning of the century , influenced by Vienna, Budapest, Bucharest with Baroque, Renaissance and Secession characteristics. Some 120 buildings have been declared local monuments and 10 national cultural monu ments. A small number of buildings from the old town have been reserved, including the Turkish bath, the naval tower and Islyahhane hotel.

ihe town has rich cultural traditions. The theatre is 80 years old, the State Opera was built in 1949, and the Symphony Orchestra founded in 1947, Every year the town hosts the traditional international festival ‘March Days of Symphony Music’.

Monuments: the Monument to Freedom, by Italian sculptor Arnoldo Zocchi in the city park in the town centre.

Youth Park has monuments to many important persons from Bulgaria’s history.

Che Lipnik National Park is under construction between the Danube and the road to Veliko Turnovo.

33 km from the town between the meandering of the Che mi Lorn are the ruins of the mediaeval fortress ofCherven and near the village of Ivanovo are the ruins of seven churches. Best preserved is the Archangel Church, also known as the Ivanovo Monastery. It has admirable frescoes by unknown masters who are supposed to have belonged to the Turnovo school of Painting. The Ivanovo churches have been declared valuable works of art by UNESCO.

Hotels: Riga, 22 Stamboliiski St., 3 stars, 16 floors, 8 suites, 21 single and 151 double rooms; restaurant, day bar and night club, cafe, hairdresser’s, free shop, post office, information bureau, covered parking lot, rent-a-car office (tel. 21-84). Dounav, 3 T.Tserkovski St., two stars, 3 floors, 6 suites and 142 beds; restaurant, day bar and night club, cafe, information bureau and rent-a-car office (tel. 2-65-18) sofia sightseeing. Varsha- va tel. 2-40-61.

Balkantourist

Balkantourist office: 1, Raiko Daskalov Str., tel. 2-24-06. 2-52-50

Road assistance technical service and information 10a Ra- kovski St., tel. 2-65-59.

Back to the town of By ala along the E-85 road and southwards. Some 20 km away is the village of Koutsina. Nearby are the ruins of the Roman town of Nikopolis ad Istrum — an important administrative and military centre in Lower Moesia in the 2nd-3rd centuries. It was founded by Emperor Mark Ul- pius Trajanus (98-117) in honour of his victory in 102 A.C. over the Dacis, who inhabited the lands north of the Danube. The Goths captured and destroyed the town in mid-3rd century. It was restored by the Byzantines and again devastated by the Avars in the 7th century. During the First and Second Bulgarian States there was a small settlement on the same site. During its peak in the 2nd and early 3rd century (the town was a strong fortress guarding the military and commercial roads from the Danube to Constantinople and from the Black Sea to Sofia.

The town was protected by a solid fortress wall with towers. The streets led to the central square (forum), around it was a covered theatre seating 350 — the only one of its kind in the Balkans. The City Council was to the north. The best preserved building is the brick reservoir west of the town walls which supplied the town’s drinking water. Columns, capitals, sacrificial altars, pedestals, pediments, ornaments and decorations were found here, as well as a bust of Emperor Gordian III (238-244) and a statue of Eros.

[yourtour]

Bulgarian river navigation

Bulgarian river navigation is based in Rousse. Rousse port is one of the main links between Bulgarian and the Soviet Union, The Bridge of Friendship built in 1954, is extremely important for the country’s economy, Some 2.8 km long, its middle part can lift up at high tide. It is one of the Bulgarian- Romanian border check points. Buildings in the town centre show its prosperity in the beginning of the century , influenced by Vienna, Budapest, Bucharest with Baroque, Renaissance and Secession characteristics. Some 120 buildings have been declared local monuments and 10 national cultural monu ments. A small number of buildings from the old town have been reserved, including the Turkish bath, the naval tower and Islyahhane hotel.

ihe town has rich cultural traditions. The theatre is 80 years old, the State Opera was built in 1949, and the Symphony Orchestra founded in 1947, Every year the town hosts the traditional international festival ‘March Days of Symphony Music’.

Monuments: the Monument to Freedom, by Italian sculptor Arnoldo Zocchi in the city park in the town centre.

Youth Park has monuments to many important persons from Bulgaria’s history.

Che Lipnik National Park is under construction between the Danube and the road to Veliko Turnovo.

33 km from the town between the meandering of the Che mi Lorn are the ruins of the mediaeval fortress ofCherven and near the village of Ivanovo are the ruins of seven churches. Best preserved is the Archangel Church, also known as the Ivanovo Monastery. It has admirable frescoes by unknown masters who are supposed to have belonged to the Turnovo school of Painting. The Ivanovo churches have been declared valuable works of art by UNESCO.

Hotels: Riga, 22 Stamboliiski St., 3 stars, 16 floors, 8 suites, 21 single and 151 double rooms; restaurant, day bar and night club, cafe, hairdresser’s, free shop, post office, information bureau, covered parking lot, rent-a-car office (tel. 21-84). Dounav, 3 T.Tserkovski St., two stars, 3 floors, 6 suites and 142 beds; restaurant, day bar and night club, cafe, information bureau and rent-a-car office (tel. 2-65-18) sofia sightseeing. Varsha- va tel. 2-40-61.

Balkantourist

Balkantourist office: 1, Raiko Daskalov Str., tel. 2-24-06. 2-52-50

Road assistance technical service and information 10a Ra- kovski St., tel. 2-65-59.

Back to the town of By ala along the E-85 road and southwards. Some 20 km away is the village of Koutsina. Nearby are the ruins of the Roman town of Nikopolis ad Istrum — an important administrative and military centre in Lower Moesia in the 2nd-3rd centuries. It was founded by Emperor Mark Ul- pius Trajanus (98-117) in honour of his victory in 102 A.C. over the Dacis, who inhabited the lands north of the Danube. The Goths captured and destroyed the town in mid-3rd century. It was restored by the Byzantines and again devastated by the Avars in the 7th century. During the First and Second Bulgarian States there was a small settlement on the same site. During its peak in the 2nd and early 3rd century (the town was a strong fortress guarding the military and commercial roads from the Danube to Constantinople and from the Black Sea to Sofia.

The town was protected by a solid fortress wall with towers. The streets led to the central square (forum), around it was a covered theatre seating 350 — the only one of its kind in the Balkans. The City Council was to the north. The best preserved building is the brick reservoir west of the town walls which supplied the town’s drinking water. Columns, capitals, sacrificial altars, pedestals, pediments, ornaments and decorations were found here, as well as a bust of Emperor Gordian III (238-244) and a statue of Eros.

[mihovatravels]

Bulgarian river navigation

Bulgarian river navigation is based in Rousse. Rousse port is one of the main links between Bulgarian and the Soviet Union, The Bridge of Friendship built in 1954, is extremely important for the country’s economy, Some 2.8 km long, its middle part can lift up at high tide. It is one of the Bulgarian- Romanian border check points. Buildings in the town centre show its prosperity in the beginning of the century , influenced by Vienna, Budapest, Bucharest with Baroque, Renaissance and Secession characteristics. Some 120 buildings have been declared local monuments and 10 national cultural monu ments. A small number of buildings from the old town have been reserved, including the Turkish bath, the naval tower and Islyahhane hotel.

ihe town has rich cultural traditions. The theatre is 80 years old, the State Opera was built in 1949, and the Symphony Orchestra founded in 1947, Every year the town hosts the traditional international festival ‘March Days of Symphony Music’.

Monuments: the Monument to Freedom, by Italian sculptor Arnoldo Zocchi in the city park in the town centre.

Youth Park has monuments to many important persons from Bulgaria’s history.

Che Lipnik National Park is under construction between the Danube and the road to Veliko Turnovo.

33 km from the town between the meandering of the Che mi Lorn are the ruins of the mediaeval fortress ofCherven and near the village of Ivanovo are the ruins of seven churches. Best preserved is the Archangel Church, also known as the Ivanovo Monastery. It has admirable frescoes by unknown masters who are supposed to have belonged to the Turnovo school of Painting. The Ivanovo churches have been declared valuable works of art by UNESCO.

Hotels: Riga, 22 Stamboliiski St., 3 stars, 16 floors, 8 suites, 21 single and 151 double rooms; restaurant, day bar and night club, cafe, hairdresser’s, free shop, post office, information bureau, covered parking lot, rent-a-car office (tel. 21-84). Dounav, 3 T.Tserkovski St., two stars, 3 floors, 6 suites and 142 beds; restaurant, day bar and night club, cafe, information bureau and rent-a-car office (tel. 2-65-18) sofia sightseeing. Varsha- va tel. 2-40-61.

Balkantourist

Balkantourist office: 1, Raiko Daskalov Str., tel. 2-24-06. 2-52-50

Road assistance technical service and information 10a Ra- kovski St., tel. 2-65-59.

Back to the town of By ala along the E-85 road and southwards. Some 20 km away is the village of Koutsina. Nearby are the ruins of the Roman town of Nikopolis ad Istrum — an important administrative and military centre in Lower Moesia in the 2nd-3rd centuries. It was founded by Emperor Mark Ul- pius Trajanus (98-117) in honour of his victory in 102 A.C. over the Dacis, who inhabited the lands north of the Danube. The Goths captured and destroyed the town in mid-3rd century. It was restored by the Byzantines and again devastated by the Avars in the 7th century. During the First and Second Bulgarian States there was a small settlement on the same site. During its peak in the 2nd and early 3rd century (the town was a strong fortress guarding the military and commercial roads from the Danube to Constantinople and from the Black Sea to Sofia.

The town was protected by a solid fortress wall with towers. The streets led to the central square (forum), around it was a covered theatre seating 350 — the only one of its kind in the Balkans. The City Council was to the north. The best preserved building is the brick reservoir west of the town walls which supplied the town’s drinking water. Columns, capitals, sacrificial altars, pedestals, pediments, ornaments and decorations were found here, as well as a bust of Emperor Gordian III (238-244) and a statue of Eros.

[atozholidays]

Bulgarian river navigation

Bulgarian river navigation is based in Rousse. Rousse port is one of the main links between Bulgarian and the Soviet Union, The Bridge of Friendship built in 1954, is extremely important for the country’s economy, Some 2.8 km long, its middle part can lift up at high tide. It is one of the Bulgarian- Romanian border check points. Buildings in the town centre show its prosperity in the beginning of the century , influenced by Vienna, Budapest, Bucharest with Baroque, Renaissance and Secession characteristics. Some 120 buildings have been declared local monuments and 10 national cultural monu ments. A small number of buildings from the old town have been reserved, including the Turkish bath, the naval tower and Islyahhane hotel.

ihe town has rich cultural traditions. The theatre is 80 years old, the State Opera was built in 1949, and the Symphony Orchestra founded in 1947, Every year the town hosts the traditional international festival ‘March Days of Symphony Music’.

Monuments: the Monument to Freedom, by Italian sculptor Arnoldo Zocchi in the city park in the town centre.

Youth Park has monuments to many important persons from Bulgaria’s history.

Che Lipnik National Park is under construction between the Danube and the road to Veliko Turnovo.

33 km from the town between the meandering of the Che mi Lorn are the ruins of the mediaeval fortress ofCherven and near the village of Ivanovo are the ruins of seven churches. Best preserved is the Archangel Church, also known as the Ivanovo Monastery. It has admirable frescoes by unknown masters who are supposed to have belonged to the Turnovo school of Painting. The Ivanovo churches have been declared valuable works of art by UNESCO.

Hotels: Riga, 22 Stamboliiski St., 3 stars, 16 floors, 8 suites, 21 single and 151 double rooms; restaurant, day bar and night club, cafe, hairdresser’s, free shop, post office, information bureau, covered parking lot, rent-a-car office (tel. 21-84). Dounav, 3 T.Tserkovski St., two stars, 3 floors, 6 suites and 142 beds; restaurant, day bar and night club, cafe, information bureau and rent-a-car office (tel. 2-65-18) sofia sightseeing. Varsha- va tel. 2-40-61.

Balkantourist

Balkantourist office: 1, Raiko Daskalov Str., tel. 2-24-06. 2-52-50

Road assistance technical service and information 10a Ra- kovski St., tel. 2-65-59.

Back to the town of By ala along the E-85 road and southwards. Some 20 km away is the village of Koutsina. Nearby are the ruins of the Roman town of Nikopolis ad Istrum — an important administrative and military centre in Lower Moesia in the 2nd-3rd centuries. It was founded by Emperor Mark Ul- pius Trajanus (98-117) in honour of his victory in 102 A.C. over the Dacis, who inhabited the lands north of the Danube. The Goths captured and destroyed the town in mid-3rd century. It was restored by the Byzantines and again devastated by the Avars in the 7th century. During the First and Second Bulgarian States there was a small settlement on the same site. During its peak in the 2nd and early 3rd century (the town was a strong fortress guarding the military and commercial roads from the Danube to Constantinople and from the Black Sea to Sofia.

The town was protected by a solid fortress wall with towers. The streets led to the central square (forum), around it was a covered theatre seating 350 — the only one of its kind in the Balkans. The City Council was to the north. The best preserved building is the brick reservoir west of the town walls which supplied the town’s drinking water. Columns, capitals, sacrificial altars, pedestals, pediments, ornaments and decorations were found here, as well as a bust of Emperor Gordian III (238-244) and a statue of Eros.

[balkanholiday]

Bulgarian river navigation

Bulgarian river navigation is based in Rousse. Rousse port is one of the main links between Bulgarian and the Soviet Union, The Bridge of Friendship built in 1954, is extremely important for the country’s economy, Some 2.8 km long, its middle part can lift up at high tide. It is one of the Bulgarian- Romanian border check points. Buildings in the town centre show its prosperity in the beginning of the century , influenced by Vienna, Budapest, Bucharest with Baroque, Renaissance and Secession characteristics. Some 120 buildings have been declared local monuments and 10 national cultural monu ments. A small number of buildings from the old town have been reserved, including the Turkish bath, the naval tower and Islyahhane hotel.

ihe town has rich cultural traditions. The theatre is 80 years old, the State Opera was built in 1949, and the Symphony Orchestra founded in 1947, Every year the town hosts the traditional international festival ‘March Days of Symphony Music’.

Monuments: the Monument to Freedom, by Italian sculptor Arnoldo Zocchi in the city park in the town centre.

Youth Park has monuments to many important persons from Bulgaria’s history.

Che Lipnik National Park is under construction between the Danube and the road to Veliko Turnovo.

33 km from the town between the meandering of the Che mi Lorn are the ruins of the mediaeval fortress ofCherven and near the village of Ivanovo are the ruins of seven churches. Best preserved is the Archangel Church, also known as the Ivanovo Monastery. It has admirable frescoes by unknown masters who are supposed to have belonged to the Turnovo school of Painting. The Ivanovo churches have been declared valuable works of art by UNESCO.

Hotels: Riga, 22 Stamboliiski St., 3 stars, 16 floors, 8 suites, 21 single and 151 double rooms; restaurant, day bar and night club, cafe, hairdresser’s, free shop, post office, information bureau, covered parking lot, rent-a-car office (tel. 21-84). Dounav, 3 T.Tserkovski St., two stars, 3 floors, 6 suites and 142 beds; restaurant, day bar and night club, cafe, information bureau and rent-a-car office (tel. 2-65-18) sofia sightseeing. Varsha- va tel. 2-40-61.

Balkantourist

Balkantourist office: 1, Raiko Daskalov Str., tel. 2-24-06. 2-52-50

Road assistance technical service and information 10a Ra- kovski St., tel. 2-65-59.

Back to the town of By ala along the E-85 road and southwards. Some 20 km away is the village of Koutsina. Nearby are the ruins of the Roman town of Nikopolis ad Istrum — an important administrative and military centre in Lower Moesia in the 2nd-3rd centuries. It was founded by Emperor Mark Ul- pius Trajanus (98-117) in honour of his victory in 102 A.C. over the Dacis, who inhabited the lands north of the Danube. The Goths captured and destroyed the town in mid-3rd century. It was restored by the Byzantines and again devastated by the Avars in the 7th century. During the First and Second Bulgarian States there was a small settlement on the same site. During its peak in the 2nd and early 3rd century (the town was a strong fortress guarding the military and commercial roads from the Danube to Constantinople and from the Black Sea to Sofia.

The town was protected by a solid fortress wall with towers. The streets led to the central square (forum), around it was a covered theatre seating 350 — the only one of its kind in the Balkans. The City Council was to the north. The best preserved building is the brick reservoir west of the town walls which supplied the town’s drinking water. Columns, capitals, sacrificial altars, pedestals, pediments, ornaments and decorations were found here, as well as a bust of Emperor Gordian III (238-244) and a statue of Eros.

[travelbg]

Bulgarian river navigation

Bulgarian river navigation is based in Rousse. Rousse port is one of the main links between Bulgarian and the Soviet Union, The Bridge of Friendship built in 1954, is extremely important for the country’s economy, Some 2.8 km long, its middle part can lift up at high tide. It is one of the Bulgarian- Romanian border check points. Buildings in the town centre show its prosperity in the beginning of the century , influenced by Vienna, Budapest, Bucharest with Baroque, Renaissance and Secession characteristics. Some 120 buildings have been declared local monuments and 10 national cultural monu ments. A small number of buildings from the old town have been reserved, including the Turkish bath, the naval tower and Islyahhane hotel.

ihe town has rich cultural traditions. The theatre is 80 years old, the State Opera was built in 1949, and the Symphony Orchestra founded in 1947, Every year the town hosts the traditional international festival ‘March Days of Symphony Music’.

Monuments: the Monument to Freedom, by Italian sculptor Arnoldo Zocchi in the city park in the town centre.

Youth Park has monuments to many important persons from Bulgaria’s history.

Che Lipnik National Park is under construction between the Danube and the road to Veliko Turnovo.

33 km from the town between the meandering of the Che mi Lorn are the ruins of the mediaeval fortress ofCherven and near the village of Ivanovo are the ruins of seven churches. Best preserved is the Archangel Church, also known as the Ivanovo Monastery. It has admirable frescoes by unknown masters who are supposed to have belonged to the Turnovo school of Painting. The Ivanovo churches have been declared valuable works of art by UNESCO.

Hotels: Riga, 22 Stamboliiski St., 3 stars, 16 floors, 8 suites, 21 single and 151 double rooms; restaurant, day bar and night club, cafe, hairdresser’s, free shop, post office, information bureau, covered parking lot, rent-a-car office (tel. 21-84). Dounav, 3 T.Tserkovski St., two stars, 3 floors, 6 suites and 142 beds; restaurant, day bar and night club, cafe, information bureau and rent-a-car office (tel. 2-65-18) sofia sightseeing. Varsha- va tel. 2-40-61.

Balkantourist

Balkantourist office: 1, Raiko Daskalov Str., tel. 2-24-06. 2-52-50

Road assistance technical service and information 10a Ra- kovski St., tel. 2-65-59.

Back to the town of By ala along the E-85 road and southwards. Some 20 km away is the village of Koutsina. Nearby are the ruins of the Roman town of Nikopolis ad Istrum — an important administrative and military centre in Lower Moesia in the 2nd-3rd centuries. It was founded by Emperor Mark Ul- pius Trajanus (98-117) in honour of his victory in 102 A.C. over the Dacis, who inhabited the lands north of the Danube. The Goths captured and destroyed the town in mid-3rd century. It was restored by the Byzantines and again devastated by the Avars in the 7th century. During the First and Second Bulgarian States there was a small settlement on the same site. During its peak in the 2nd and early 3rd century (the town was a strong fortress guarding the military and commercial roads from the Danube to Constantinople and from the Black Sea to Sofia.

The town was protected by a solid fortress wall with towers. The streets led to the central square (forum), around it was a covered theatre seating 350 — the only one of its kind in the Balkans. The City Council was to the north. The best preserved building is the brick reservoir west of the town walls which supplied the town’s drinking water. Columns, capitals, sacrificial altars, pedestals, pediments, ornaments and decorations were found here, as well as a bust of Emperor Gordian III (238-244) and a statue of Eros.

[bookingrooms]

Bulgarian river navigation

Bulgarian river navigation is based in Rousse. Rousse port is one of the main links between Bulgarian and the Soviet Union, The Bridge of Friendship built in 1954, is extremely important for the country’s economy, Some 2.8 km long, its middle part can lift up at high tide. It is one of the Bulgarian- Romanian border check points. Buildings in the town centre show its prosperity in the beginning of the century , influenced by Vienna, Budapest, Bucharest with Baroque, Renaissance and Secession characteristics. Some 120 buildings have been declared local monuments and 10 national cultural monu ments. A small number of buildings from the old town have been reserved, including the Turkish bath, the naval tower and Islyahhane hotel.

ihe town has rich cultural traditions. The theatre is 80 years old, the State Opera was built in 1949, and the Symphony Orchestra founded in 1947, Every year the town hosts the traditional international festival ‘March Days of Symphony Music’.

Monuments: the Monument to Freedom, by Italian sculptor Arnoldo Zocchi in the city park in the town centre.

Youth Park has monuments to many important persons from Bulgaria’s history.

Che Lipnik National Park is under construction between the Danube and the road to Veliko Turnovo.

33 km from the town between the meandering of the Che mi Lorn are the ruins of the mediaeval fortress ofCherven and near the village of Ivanovo are the ruins of seven churches. Best preserved is the Archangel Church, also known as the Ivanovo Monastery. It has admirable frescoes by unknown masters who are supposed to have belonged to the Turnovo school of Painting. The Ivanovo churches have been declared valuable works of art by UNESCO.

Hotels: Riga, 22 Stamboliiski St., 3 stars, 16 floors, 8 suites, 21 single and 151 double rooms; restaurant, day bar and night club, cafe, hairdresser’s, free shop, post office, information bureau, covered parking lot, rent-a-car office (tel. 21-84). Dounav, 3 T.Tserkovski St., two stars, 3 floors, 6 suites and 142 beds; restaurant, day bar and night club, cafe, information bureau and rent-a-car office (tel. 2-65-18) sofia sightseeing. Varsha- va tel. 2-40-61.

Balkantourist

Balkantourist office: 1, Raiko Daskalov Str., tel. 2-24-06. 2-52-50

Road assistance technical service and information 10a Ra- kovski St., tel. 2-65-59.

Back to the town of By ala along the E-85 road and southwards. Some 20 km away is the village of Koutsina. Nearby are the ruins of the Roman town of Nikopolis ad Istrum — an important administrative and military centre in Lower Moesia in the 2nd-3rd centuries. It was founded by Emperor Mark Ul- pius Trajanus (98-117) in honour of his victory in 102 A.C. over the Dacis, who inhabited the lands north of the Danube. The Goths captured and destroyed the town in mid-3rd century. It was restored by the Byzantines and again devastated by the Avars in the 7th century. During the First and Second Bulgarian States there was a small settlement on the same site. During its peak in the 2nd and early 3rd century (the town was a strong fortress guarding the military and commercial roads from the Danube to Constantinople and from the Black Sea to Sofia.

The town was protected by a solid fortress wall with towers. The streets led to the central square (forum), around it was a covered theatre seating 350 — the only one of its kind in the Balkans. The City Council was to the north. The best preserved building is the brick reservoir west of the town walls which supplied the town’s drinking water. Columns, capitals, sacrificial altars, pedestals, pediments, ornaments and decorations were found here, as well as a bust of Emperor Gordian III (238-244) and a statue of Eros.

[hostravels]

Bulgarian river navigation

Bulgarian river navigation is based in Rousse. Rousse port is one of the main links between Bulgarian and the Soviet Union, The Bridge of Friendship built in 1954, is extremely important for the country’s economy, Some 2.8 km long, its middle part can lift up at high tide. It is one of the Bulgarian- Romanian border check points. Buildings in the town centre show its prosperity in the beginning of the century , influenced by Vienna, Budapest, Bucharest with Baroque, Renaissance and Secession characteristics. Some 120 buildings have been declared local monuments and 10 national cultural monu ments. A small number of buildings from the old town have been reserved, including the Turkish bath, the naval tower and Islyahhane hotel.

ihe town has rich cultural traditions. The theatre is 80 years old, the State Opera was built in 1949, and the Symphony Orchestra founded in 1947, Every year the town hosts the traditional international festival ‘March Days of Symphony Music’.

Monuments: the Monument to Freedom, by Italian sculptor Arnoldo Zocchi in the city park in the town centre.

Youth Park has monuments to many important persons from Bulgaria’s history.

Che Lipnik National Park is under construction between the Danube and the road to Veliko Turnovo.

33 km from the town between the meandering of the Che mi Lorn are the ruins of the mediaeval fortress ofCherven and near the village of Ivanovo are the ruins of seven churches. Best preserved is the Archangel Church, also known as the Ivanovo Monastery. It has admirable frescoes by unknown masters who are supposed to have belonged to the Turnovo school of Painting. The Ivanovo churches have been declared valuable works of art by UNESCO.

Hotels: Riga, 22 Stamboliiski St., 3 stars, 16 floors, 8 suites, 21 single and 151 double rooms; restaurant, day bar and night club, cafe, hairdresser’s, free shop, post office, information bureau, covered parking lot, rent-a-car office (tel. 21-84). Dounav, 3 T.Tserkovski St., two stars, 3 floors, 6 suites and 142 beds; restaurant, day bar and night club, cafe, information bureau and rent-a-car office (tel. 2-65-18) sofia sightseeing. Varsha- va tel. 2-40-61.

Balkantourist

Balkantourist office: 1, Raiko Daskalov Str., tel. 2-24-06. 2-52-50

Road assistance technical service and information 10a Ra- kovski St., tel. 2-65-59.

Back to the town of By ala along the E-85 road and southwards. Some 20 km away is the village of Koutsina. Nearby are the ruins of the Roman town of Nikopolis ad Istrum — an important administrative and military centre in Lower Moesia in the 2nd-3rd centuries. It was founded by Emperor Mark Ul- pius Trajanus (98-117) in honour of his victory in 102 A.C. over the Dacis, who inhabited the lands north of the Danube. The Goths captured and destroyed the town in mid-3rd century. It was restored by the Byzantines and again devastated by the Avars in the 7th century. During the First and Second Bulgarian States there was a small settlement on the same site. During its peak in the 2nd and early 3rd century (the town was a strong fortress guarding the military and commercial roads from the Danube to Constantinople and from the Black Sea to Sofia.

The town was protected by a solid fortress wall with towers. The streets led to the central square (forum), around it was a covered theatre seating 350 — the only one of its kind in the Balkans. The City Council was to the north. The best preserved building is the brick reservoir west of the town walls which supplied the town’s drinking water. Columns, capitals, sacrificial altars, pedestals, pediments, ornaments and decorations were found here, as well as a bust of Emperor Gordian III (238-244) and a statue of Eros.