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Nasihatname & Kutadgu Bilig

Nasîhatnâme (Nasîhat, from Arabic, meaning letters of advice) were a type of guidance letter for Ottoman sultans, similar to mirrors for princes. 

Nasîhatnâme became common in the sixteenth century but built on earlier works such as the Kutadgu Bilig (Knowledge of Prosperity), written in 1070 by Yusuf Has Hacip.

They draw on a variety of historical and religious sources, and were influenced by the governance of previous empires such as the Sassanids or the Mongols, as well as by Muslim history and by contemporary events.

By the 17th century, a sense of imperial decline began to affect the content of these texts; more than just advocating a return to some golden age (i.e. Suleyman the Magnificent) they highlighted specific systemic problems in the empire - including nepotism, revolts, military defeat, and corrupt Janissaries.

Nasîhatnâme typically state a clear moral reason for why they are written and presented to leaders; whether piety, or morality, or realpolitik.

Precursors

Nasihat al-Muluk (literally "advice for rulers") by al-Ghazali

Kabusnama, by Keykavus bin İskender

Siyasetname by Nizamülmülk, written by order of the Seljuk emperor Melikşah.

Ahlak-ı Nasıri (Nasırian Ethics) by Nasiruddin Tusi

Çahar Makala (Four Discourses) by Nizamuddin Arudi

Kitab Nasihat al-Mulk, by Al-Mawardi

Nasîhatnâme texts

Tarih-i Ebü’l-Feth (History of the father of conquest), by Tursun Bey

Destan ve Tevarih-i Müluk-i Al-i Osman, by Ahmedi

Nushatü’s Selatin (Advice to the sultans), by Gelibolulu Mustafa Ali

Hirzü’l-Mülûk (Spells of the sultans), anonymously written

Usûlü’l-hikem fi Nizâmi’l-âlem (The principles of wisdom for the order of the world), by Hasan Kâfî el-Akhisarî

Habnâme (Book of dreams), by Veysi.

Kitâb-i Müstetâb (Beautiful book), anonymous.

Risale, Koçi Bey

Veliyüddin Telhisleri

Kanûnnâme-i sultânî li Aziz Efendi; the identity of the author, Aziz Efendi, is unclear.

Kitâbu mesâlihi’l-müslimîn ve menâfi’i’l-müminîn, anonymous.

Düsturü’l-Amel li-Islahi’l-Halel, by Katip Çelebi

Telhisü’l-beyan fi kavanin-i al-i Osman, by Hezarfan Hüseyin Efendi, who also wrote the history book Tenkîh-i Tevârih-i Mülûk

Mirrors_for_princes

Kutadgu_Bilig

Siyasatname

Sefaretname

Nizamiyyah

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Why did Ottoman Empire Fall?

Mehmed VI, the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, leaving the country after the abolition of the Ottoman sultanate, 17 November 1922.

Okumaya devam et

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Tuva: Songs of Altays

The Tuvans are a Turkic ethnic group living in southern Siberia. They are historically known as one of the Uriankhai, from the Mongolian designation. Tuvans' recent ethnic history is rooted in Mongol, Turkic, and Samoyedic groups of peoples.

Tuvans have historically been cattle-herding nomads, tending to their herds of goats, sheep, camels, reindeer, cattle and yaks for the past thousands of years. They have traditionally lived in yurts covered by felt or chums covered with birch bark or hide that they relocate seasonally as they move to newer pastures.

Besides prehistoric rock-carvings to be found especially along the Yenisei banks, the first internationally important archaeological findings have been near Arzhan, in the north central Tuva. Here Scythian kurgan burials are being researched, revealing the earliest (7th, 6th century BC) and easternmost remains of these people who spread all the way to Europe. Their story and fantastic gold treasures can be appreciated in the National Museum in Kyzyl.

The Xiongnu ruled over the area of Tuva prior to 200 AD. At this time a people known to the Chinese as Dingling inhabited the region. The Chinese recorded the existence of a tribe of Dingling origin named Dubo in the eastern Sayans. This name is recognized as being associated with the Tuvan people and is the earliest written record of them. The Xianbei defeated the Xiongnu and they in turn were defeated by the Rouran. From around the end of the 6th century, the Göktürks held dominion over Tuva up until the 8th century when the Uyghurs took over.

The Tyva Republic (Респу́блика Тыва́), is a federal subject of Russia, a republic, also defined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation as a State.

A unique form of music exists in Tuva - commonly known as throat singing or as khoomei. There are various techniques of khoomei, some giving the effect of multiple tones by emphasizing overtones. Some famous groups from Tuva who feature throat-singing are Yat-Kha, Huun-Huur-Tu, Chirgilchin and the Alash Ensemble.

Sounds of Altai Mountains: Chirgilchin - "Igor's Solo". Altay Dağlarının türküsü.

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Altaic Languages

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History of the Uyghur people

Many historians traced the ancestry of the Uyghur tribe to the Altaic pastoralists called Tiele (Tura in Uyghur), who lived in the valleys south of Lake Baikal and around the Yenisei River. The Tiele first appear in history AD 357 under the Chinese ethnonym Gaoche (Qangqil in Uyghur), referring to the ox-drawn carts with distinctive high wheels used for yurt transportation. Tiele tribal territories had previously been occupied by the Dingling, an ancient Siberian people, some of whom had been absorbed into the Tiele. The Tiele practiced some minor agriculture and were highly developed metalsmiths due to the abundance of easily available iron ore in the Yenisei River.

A Tiele tribe of twelve clans, the Fufuluo (副伏罗), gathered enough power to create a state, the A-Fuzhiluo kingdom (AD 481-520), in Dzhungaria. The Fufulo are often listed as Uyghur ancestors in Chinese history, famously in the Suishu, Book of Sui (隋书), the official history of the Sui dynasty. 

The forebears of the Tiele belonged to those Xiongnu descendants, having the largest divisions of tribes. They occupied the valleys, and were scattered across the vast region west of the Western Sea [Black Sea]

At the area north of the Duluo River (Tuul River), are the Pugu, Tongluo, Weihe (Orkhon Uyghur), Bayegu, Fuluo (Fufuluo), which were all called Sijin (Irkin). Other tribes such as Mengchen, Turuhe, Sijie (Esegel , (Pin. Asijie, Sijie 思結), Hun (Hunyu), Hu, Xue (Huxue) and so forth, also dwelled in this area. They had a 20,000 strong invincible army.

The names of these tribes differ, but all of them can be classified as Tiele. The Tiele do not have a master, but are subjected to the both Eastern and Western Tujue (Göktürks) respectively. They don't have a permanent residence, and move with the changes of grass and water. Their main characteristics are, firstly, they possessed great ferocity, and yet showed tolerance; secondly, they were good riders and archers; and thirdly, they showed greed without restraint, for they often made their living by looting. The tribes toward the west were more cultivated, for they bred cattle and sheep, but fewer horses. Since the Tujue had established a state, they were recruited as the auxiliary of empire and conquered both east and westward, annexing all of the northern regional lands.

The customs of the Tiele and Tujue are not much different. However, a man of the Tiele lives in his wife's home after marriage and will not return to his own home with his wife until the birth of a child. In addition, the Tiele also bury their dead under the ground. — Suishu, 84

In AD 546, the Fufulo led the Tiele tribes in a struggle against the Türk tribe in the power vacuum left by the breakup of the Rouran state. As a result of this defeat, they were forced into servitude again. This incident marked the beginning of the historic Türk-Tiele animosity that plagued both Göktürk Khanates. (Note: at this time Tiele replaces Gaoche in Chinese history.) At some point during their subjugation, nine Tiele tribes formed a coalition called Tokuz-Oguzes Nine-Tribes which also included the Xueyantuo (Syr-Tardush), Basmyl, Oguz, Khazar, Alans, Kyrgyz, Tuva and Yakut under the leadership of the Xueyantuo.

In AD 600, Sui China allied with Erkin Tegin, Bey of the Uyghur tribe, against the Göktürk Empire, their common enemy. This alliance was the first historical mention of the Uyghur tribe, which then resided in the Tuul River Valley with a population of 10,000 yurts (~40,000 people). In AD 603, the alliance dissolved in the aftermath of Tardu Khan's defeat, but three tribes came under Uyghur control: Bugut, Tongra and Bayirqu. +

The Uyghur Khaganate (or Uyghur Empire or Uighur Khaganate or Toquz Oghuz Country) (回鹘) was a Turkic empire that existed for about a century between the mid 8th and 9th centuries. They were a tribal confederation under the Orkhon Uyghur (回鶻) nobility, referred to by the Chinese as the Jiu Xing ("Nine Clans"), a calque of the name Toquz Oghuz.

Properly called the On Uyghur Toquz-Oghuz Orkhon Khanate, the Uyghur Khaganate stretched from the Caspian Sea to Manchuria and lasted from AD 745 to 840. It was administered from the imperial capital Ordu-Baliq, one of the biggest ancient cities in Mongolia. During the imperial phase, the term Uyghur (维吾尔) denoted any citizen of the Uyghur Khaganate, as opposed to the Uyghur tribe. +

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World map of Y-chromosome haplogroups: Dominant haplogroups in pre-colonial populations with possible migration routes. 

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Oghuz Khan

The legend of semi-mythological Oghuz Khan is one of a number of different origin narratives that circulated among the Turkic peoples of Central Asia. It was first recorded in the 13th century.

The anonymous Uyghur vertical script narrative of the 14th century, which is preserved in Paris, is a manuscript that was probably already being modified to fit with stories of the Mongol Conquest, as Paul Pelliot has shown. 

Abū’l-Ghāzī’s 17th century version roughly follows Rashīd ad-Dīn’s already Islamized and Mongolized (post-conquest) version of the early 14th century. As he was dying he established Turk as his successor.

According to legend, Oghuz was born in Central Asia as the son of Qara Khan, leader of the Turks. He starts talking as soon as he was born.

Turk settled at Issiq Kul and was succeeded by Tutek, the eldest of his four sons. Four generations after him came two sons, Tatar and Moghul, who divided his kingdom between them. Moghul Khan begat Qara Khan who begat Oghuz Khan.   +

See Gokturk Khaganate.

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Shah Ismail

Shah Ismail I, the Sheikh of the Safavi tariqa, founder of the Safavid Dynasty of Iran, and the Commander-in-chief of the Qizilbash armies. Above portrait: Medieval European rendering by an unknown Venetian artist. The original rendering is kept in the Uffizi Gallery museum in Florence, Italy.

The dynasty founded by Ismail I would rule for over two centuries, being one of the greatest Persian empires after the Muslim conquest of Persia and at its height being amongst the most powerful empires of its time, ruling all of Iran, Azerbaijan, Armenia, most of Georgia, the North Caucasus, Iraq, Kuwait, and Afghanistan, as well as parts of modern day Syria, Turkey, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan at their height. It also reasserted the Iranian identity in Greater Iran. The legacy of the Safavid Empire was also the revival of Persia as an economic stronghold between East and West, the establishment of an efficient state and bureaucracy, their architectural innovations and their patronage for fine arts.

Ismail played a key role in the rise of Twelver Islam; he converted Iran from Sunni to Shi'a Islam, importing religious authorities from the Levant. In Alevism, Shah Ismail remains revered as a spiritual guide.

Ismail was also a prolific poet who, under the pen name Khatā'ī (which means "sinner" in Arabic) contributed greatly to the literary development of the Azerbaijani language. He also contributed to Persian literature, though few of his Persian writings are still in existence.

Ismail was born to Martha and Shaykh Haydar on July 17, 1487 in Ardabil. His father, Haydar, was the sheikh of the Safaviyya Sufi order and a direct descendant of its Kurdish founder, Safi-ad-din Ardabili (1252–1334). Ismail was the last in line of hereditary Grand Masters of the Safaviyah Sufi order, prior to his ascent to a ruling dynasty. Ismail was a great-great grandson of Emperor Alexios IV of Trebizond and King Alexander I of Georgia. His mother Martha, better known as Halima Begum, was the daughter of Uzun Hasan by his Pontic Greek wife Theodora Megale Komnene, better known as Despina Khatun. Despina Khatun was the daughter of Emperor John IV of Trebizond. (She had married Uzun Hassan in a deal to protect the Greek Empire of Trebizond from the Ottomans.) Ismail grew up bilingual, speaking Persian and Azerbaijani. +

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Mamluks

Mamluk (Arabic: مملوك mamlūk (singular), مماليك mamālīk (plural), meaning "property" or "owned slave" of the king, also transliterated as mamlouk, mamluq, mamluke, mameluk, mameluke, mamaluke or marmeluke) is an Arabic designation for slaves.

More specifically, it refers to:

Khwarazmian dynasty in Persia (1077–1231)

Mamluk Dynasty (Delhi) (1206–1290)

Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo) (1250–1517)

Mamluk dynasty of Iraq (1704–1831, under Ottoman Iraq)

The most enduring Mamluk realm was the military caste in medieval Egypt that rose from the ranks of slave soldiers who were mainly of Kipchak and many other Turkic tribes, also Circassian, and Georgian origin, although in the Burji (post-1389) Mamluk sultanate many Mamluks could also be of Balkan origin (Albanian, Greek, South Slavic). 

The "mamluk phenomenon", as David Ayalon dubbed the creation of the specific warrior class, was of great political importance and was extraordinarily long-lived, lasting from the 9th to the 19th centuries AD.

Over time, mamluks became a powerful military caste in various Islamic societies. Particularly in Egypt, but also in the Levant, Mesopotamia, and India, mamluks held political and military power. In some cases, they attained the rank of sultan, while in others they held regional power as amirs or beys. Most notably, mamluk factions seized the sultanate for themselves in Egypt and Syria in a period known as the Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517). The Mamluk Sultanate famously beat back the troops of the Ilkhanate at the Battle of Ain Jalut and fought the Crusaders, effectively driving them out from the Levant by 1291 and officially in 1302 ending the era of the Crusades.

While mamluks were purchased, their status was above ordinary slaves, who were not allowed to carry weapons or perform certain tasks. In places such as Egypt from the Ayyubid dynasty to the time of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, mamluks were considered to be “true lords", with social status above freeborn Muslims.

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The Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire, self-designated as Gurkani, was extending over large parts of the Indian subcontinent and ruled by a dynasty of Mongol and Chagatai-Turkic origin.

The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the founder Babur's victory over Ibrahim Lodi in the first Battle of Panipat. The Mughal emperors were Central Asian Turko-Mongols, who claimed direct descent from both Genghis Khan (through his son Chagatai Khan) and Timur. 

The "classic period" of the empire started in 1556 with the ascension of Akbar the Great to the throne. Under the rule of Akbar and his son Jahangir, India enjoyed economic progress as well as religious harmony, and the monarchs were interested in local religious and cultural traditions.

The Mughal Empire did not try to intervene in the local societies, but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices and diverse and inclusive ruling elites, leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.

The reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi, and the Lahore Fort. 

The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of Aurangzeb and also started its terminal decline in his reign due to Maratha military resurgence under Shivaji Bhosale.  +

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Timur

Timur was a Turco-Mongol conqueror and the founder of the Timurid dynasty in Central Asia.

Born into the Barlas confederation in Transoxiana during the 1320s or 1330s, Timur gained control of the Western Chagatai Khanate by 1370. From that base, he led military campaigns across Western, South and Central Asia and emerged as the most powerful ruler in the Muslim world after defeating the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria, the emerging Ottoman Empire and the declining Delhi Sultanate. From these conquests he founded the Timurid Empire, although it fragmented shortly after his death.

The origin of the Timurid dynasty goes back to the Mongol tribe known as Barlas, who were remnants of the original Mongol army of Genghis Khan. After the Mongol conquest of Central Asia, the Barlas settled in what is today southern Kazakhstan, from Shymkent to Taraz and Almaty, which then came to be known for a time as Moghulistan – "Land of Mongols" in Persian – and intermingled to a considerable degree with the local Turkic and Turkic-speaking population, so that at the time of Timur's reign the Barlas had become thoroughly Turkicized in terms of language and habits. +

Additionally, by adopting Islam, the Central Asian Turks and Mongols adopted the Persian literary and high culture which had dominated Central Asia since the early days of Islamic influence. Persian literature was instrumental in the assimilation of the Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamic courtly culture.

Timur is considered the last of the great nomadic conquerors of the Eurasian Steppe, and his empire set the stage for the rise of the more structured and lasting Gunpowder Empires in the 1500s and 1600s.

He was the grandfather of the renowned Timurid sultan, astronomer and mathematician Ulugh Beg, who ruled Central Asia from 1411 to 1449, and the great-great-great-grandfather of Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire, which ruled parts of South Asia for over three centuries, from 1526 until 1857. 

Timur is also recognized as a great patron of art and architecture, as he interacted with Muslim intellectuals such as Ibn Khaldun and Hafiz-i Abru. +

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Timeline of Mongolic States

Xiongnu 209 BC–93 AD

Xianbei state 93-234 Yueban 160-490 Northern Wei 386-585 Rouran Khaganate 330-555 Tuyuhun Kingdom 285-670 Liao dynasty 907-1125 Kara-Khitan Khanate 1125–1221 Mongol khanates IX-X Khereid Khanate X-1203 Merkit Khanate XI–XII Tatar Khanate IX – XII Naiman Khanate -1204 Khamag Mongol Khanate X-1206 Mongol Empire 1206-1368 Yuan dynasty 1271-1368 Khitan Sultanate 1220s-1306 Chagatai Khanate 1225-1340s Moghulistan 1346-1462 Golden Horde 1240-1502 Ilkhanate 1256-1335 Chobanids 1335-1357 Jalairid Sultanate 1335-1432 Injuids 1335-1357 Post-Imperial Mongolia 1368-1691 Kara Del 1383-1513 Four Oirat 1399-1634 Arghun dynasty 1479-1599 Kalmyk Khanate 1630-1731 Khotogoid Khanate XVI-XII Khoshut Khanate 1640s-1717 Dzungar Khanate 1634-1758 Bogd Khaganate 1911-1924 Mongolian People's Republic 1924–1992 Mongolia 1992-present

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Timeline of history of Turks

6th century

545: A Western Wei envoy to the Altai mountains. First mention of Bumin, as the leader of the Ashina clan (the aristocrats of Turks).

551: Bumin declares independence of the Turks around Altai mountains, conquers Ötüken in Mongolian Plateau and takes the title khagan (qaghan). His empire is known as Göktürk (Celestial Turk).

552: Shortly after sending his brother Istemi to the Western Regions as his yabgu (vassal), Bumin Qaghan dies. His elder son Issık becomes the khagan

554: Muqan Qaghan becomes the qaghan. After a series of successful campaigns the Göktürks begin to control the silk road.

558: In alliance with Sassanid Persia, Istemi defeats the Hephthalites and conquers Transoxania.

568: An alliance with the Byzantine Empire under Justin II is formed after a delegation of the Turks led by Sogdian Maniah arrive in Constantinople to trade silk with the Byzantines.

576: The alliance with the Byzantines ceases after the Byzantines (contrary to their agreement) accept a treaty with Avars, enemies of the Göktürks. The Göktürks seize a Byzantine stronghold in the Crimea.

580: Agathias identifies Burgunds (Βουρουγουνδοι) and Ultizurs as Bulgaric people of Hunnic circle tribes, near relatives of Turkic Cotrigurs and Utigurs.

581: Tardush, the second yabgu in the west lay siege to Tauric Chersonesus in Crimea.

581: Two rival states in China begin to pay annual tribute to the Turkic Khaganate.

584: Taspar Qaghan dies, civil war breaks out. (Ishbara Qaghan vs. Apa Qaghan) Tardush interferes.

587: Tardush de facto ruler of the west. Period of dual khaganates. From now on the west khaganate is also called Onok.

588: First Perso-Turkic War. An attempt of the Turkic Khaganatte to invade Afghanistan. But Bahram Chobin of Persia defeats the Turkic Khaganate.

593: End of Turkic interregnum.

7th century

609: Shibi Khan becomes the khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate.

615: Shibi Qaghan's army surrounds Emperor Yang at Yanmen (Dai, Xinzhou, Shanxi).

618: Tong Yabghu Qaghan becomes the khagan of the Western Turkic Khaganate. He is also known as Ziebel the founder of Khazar state (or Khazaria) in Caucasus as a part of Onok.

619: Second Perso-Turkic War. Tong Yabghu Qaghan raids as far as to Isfahan; but is repelled.

625: Alliance with the Byzantine Empire under Heraclius when the emperor requests military aid from the Turks under Tong Yabghu.

626: Illig Qaghan takes advantage of the Incident at Xuanwu Gate and charges to Wei River.

627: Third Perso-Turkic War. Böri Shad conquers Derbend in Caucasus and raids Azerbaijan.

628: Xueyantuo (under the command of Yi'nan) and Toquz Oghuz defeats Yukuk Shad (shad of northern side) and Ashina She'er (shad of western side) of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate.

630: Tang China supports a revolt of vassals of eastern khaganate. Tang army under the command of Li Jing defeats the Eastern Turkic Khaganate at Battle of Yinshan. Emperor Taizong says It's enough for me to compensate my dishonor at Wei River (626). East khaganate becomes vassal of China.

632: Khan Kubrat based Old Great Bulgaria

638: Ilı river treaty between the two wings of the Western Turkic Kaganate. (Nushibi) vs (Tulo) Ili river becomes the boundary.

639: Ashina Jiesheshuai's unsuccessful raid against Jiucheng Palace. (In popular Turkish culture, Ashina Jiesheshuai is identified as Kürşat )

640: Yukuk Shad tries to unite the Onok tribes, but soon escapes to Kunduz in Afghanistan.

642: Western Turkic soldiers retreat from Gaochang and the kingdom is captured by Tang Dynasty forces. Military conflicts against the Tang Dynasty continue for the next few decades.

644: Western Turks defeated in a battle against the Tang Dynasty in Karasahr.

648: Western Turks lose a battle against the Tang Dynasty in Kucha.

650: Khazars defeat Abd ar-Rahman ibn Rabiah of Rashidun Arabs in Caucasus.

657: China dispatches a military campaign that defeats the western khaganate. Western khaganate becomes vassal of China. During power vacuum, Turgesh tribe emerges as the leading power of Onok.

664: Peace treaty between Caucasian Albania King Javanshir (636-669) and Caucasian Huns Elteber Alp Ilitver with conditions of dynastic marriage union, Huns' takeover of all Albanian fortresses, annual tribute to the Huns, and Huns obligation to defend Albania from Arab aggression.

679: Ashide Wenfu and Ashide Fengzhi who were Turkic liders of Danyu Da Douhufu made Ashina Nishu Beg a Turkic qaghan and revolts against Tang dynasty.

680: Pei Xingjian defeated Ashina Nishu Beg and his army. Ashina Nishu Beg was killed by his men.

680: Ashide Wenfu made Ashina Funian a qaghan and revolted against Tang dynasty.

681: Treaty of 681 was concluded between Bulgar Khan Asparukh and Byzantine Emperor Constantine IV Pogonatus. The peace treaty recognized Asparukh's control over captured Byzantine territories

681: Ashide Wenfu and Ashina Funian surrendered to Pei Xingjian. 54 Turks (including Ashide Wenfu, Ashina Funian) were publicly executed in the Eastern Market of Chang'an.

681: Ashina Kutlug revolts with the remnants of Ashina Funian's men.

682: Ashina Kutlug becomes Ilterish Qaghan and establishes the Second Eastern Turkic Khaganate.

685: Ilterish Qaghan defeats the Chinese in Hin Chu.

694: Death of Ilterish Qaghan. Qapaghan Qaghan becomes the second khagan.

698: Qapagan annexes Turkestan (On Oq territory) against Turgesh.

8th century

704: Umayyad governor Qutaibah bin Muslim invades Transoxiana.

713: Turco-Arab wars in Transoxina. Arab victory leads to shift of power in Turkestan from Turkic Khaganate to their Turgesh vassals again.

716: First treaty wth known terms between Byzantine Emperor Theodosios III and Danube Bulgaria Khan Tervel delineating borders, fixing the size of Byzantine annual tribute to the Khan at 30 lb. of gold, exchange of prisoners, return of refugees, and unimpeded trade between the two countries

716: Qapaghan Qaghan was killed in his campaign against Toquz Oghuz and his head was sent to Changan. Kul Tigin and Tonyukuk carried out a coup d'état. They killed Qapaghan's son and brothers and made Bilge Qaghan a qaghan.

716: (?) The first written records in Old Turkic language. Bain Tsokto inscriptions of Tonyukuk. (These monuments have been erected by himself, a few years before his death.)

717: Suluk becomes Turgesh qaghan.

718: A short period of stability in Turkic Empire. Bilge and his triumvirate suppress all revolts.

723: Governor Al-Kharashi of Umayyad Arabs massacres Turks and Sogdian refugees for the second time in Khujand

724: Turgesh Qaghan Suluk defeats superior Umayyad Arab armies by his hit and run tactics so called "The Day of Thirst" (Yawm al-'Atash)

728: Turgesh Qaghan Suluk defeats Umayyad Arab armies for the second time.

730: Khazars defeat Umayyad Arab armies in southern Caucasus. But victorious general Barjik dies in the battle.

734: Death of Bilge Khagan.

735: Khöshöö Tsaidam Monuments of Bilge Khagan and his brother Kül Tigin. (Bilge has already erected Kül Tigin's monument and Bilge's son erects Bilge's monument.) Together with Bain Tsokto monument of Tonyukuk, these monuments are called Orkhon monuments. (In 2004 the monuments are included in List of World Heritage Sites in Asia and Australasia)

737: Umayyad Arabs defeat Khazars and capture Khazar capital Balanjar. Khazars soon after drive Arabs back. But the capital is shifted to Atil.

738: Suluk is assassinated.

740: Khazar khan Bulan embraces Judaism. But the subjects are free to choose their religion.

744: Turkic subjects like Basmyl, Uyghur and Karluk who are not the members of Ashina clan stage a coup. End of Ashina clan. (except in Khazaria)

745: First Uyghur khan Kutluk Bilge. Uygurs replace Turkic Khaganate in the east and their vassal Karluks begin to conquer the former On Oq territory in the west.

747: Second Uyghur khan Bayanchur Khan who begins the construction of a big capital city Ordu Baliq

750: In Arab Empire Umayyad dynasty ends. Abbasid policy more tolerant to Turks.

751: Arabs defeat Chinese in the Battle of Talas during which 20,000 Karluk mercenaries switch to the Arab side in the middle of the battle.

753: Tariat inscriptions of Bayanchor Khan of Uyghurs. (probable date)

755: After the battle of Talas civil war in China. Bayanchor supports Chinese empreror against rebellious general An Lushan.

756: Peace treaty between Byzantine Emperor Constantine V and Danube Bulgaria Khan Kormisosh ending long period of military conflict

765: Third Uyghur khan Bogu embraces Manicheism.

766: Karluks defeat Turgesh. Most of Turkestan (former Onak territory) under Karluk rule. But in the west of Lake Aral a loose confederation named Oghuz Yabgu State emerges.

789: Ediz house replaces Yaglakar house in Uigur Kaganate.

9th century

815: Thirty Years’ Peace Treaty of 815 was signed in Constantinople between the Bulgarian Khan Omurtag and the Byzantine Emperor Leo V the Armenian about 30-years peace

821: Uyghurs repulse Tibetians

836: The capital of the Caliphate (Arabic Empire) is moved from Baghdad to the new city of Samarra by Caliph Al-Mu'tasim because of unrest caused by Turkic slave soldiers (named Mameluk). (Mameluk practice has begun shortly after battle of Talas .)

840: Kyrgyz in Yenisey region (north) defeat Uyghurs. End of the main khaganate. But Uyghurs flee to south west.

848: Some Uyghur refuges establish a small state in Gansu, north China.

850: Supported by Uyghur refuges Karluks establish the state of Karakhanids in Transoxiana.

856: A third group of Uyghur refuges establish another state in Turpan, present day Xinjiang, west China.

868: Ahmad ibn Tulun, a Turkic mameluk general in Arab army founds Tulunid dynasty in Egypt.

881: Three Khazar tribes collectively named Kabar diverge from the main body and move westwards together with the seven tribes of Magyars.

892: Khazars force Pechenegs to west who in turn force Magyars to Hungary.

898: Treaty of 898 between the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon and the Byzantine Emperor Leo Choerosphactus after a devastating unprovoked war on Bulgaria from two sides and final Bulgarian victory resumes Byzantine payment of annual tribute to Danube Bulgaria

10th century

914: Treaty of 914 was a peace treaty concluded between Pechenegs and a prince of Rus principality Igor

924: Mongols of Khitan drive Kyrgyz out of Mongolia. Some Kyrgyz return to Yenisei region and some flee to present day Kyrgyzstan.

932: Saltuk Buğra Khan of Karakhanids embrace Islam. The first Turkic monarch to do so.

940: Byzantine-Russian alliance against Khazars. Khazar Khannate loses Crimea.

941: Gansu state (Sari Uyghurs) becomes vassal of China.

960: Khazar Correspondence between Hasdai ibn Shaprut (of Córdoba) and Khagan Joseph of Khazars.

963: Alp Tigin a Turkic general establishes Ghaznavids as a vassal state of Samanids

969: Russians capture Khazar capital Atil.

977: Under Sebük Tekin Ghaznavids become a Muslim sultanate (empire).

985: A big Turkic tribe (Kinik) under the leadership of Selçuk migrates from Khazar (Oguz ?) territory to suburbs of the city Jend (which is now in South Kazakhstan).

999: Dissolution of Oguz confederation by Kipchaks.

11th century

1016: Khazar Kaganate dissolves under pressure from Russians and Kipchaks.

1037: Russians defeat Pechenegs.

1038: Seljuk's grandsons Tugrul and Chaghri conquer the historical city of Merv in present day Turkmenistan and declare independence. Beginning of the Great Seljuk Empire.

1040: Tugrul and Chagri of Seljuk Turks defeat a Ghaznavid army at the battle of Dandanaqan and begin to settle in eastern Persia.

1042: Civil war in Karakhanid teriitory. East and west Karakhanids.

1048: Ibrahim Yinal (Tugrul's uterine brother) of Seljuk Turks defeat a Byzantine-Georgian army at Battle of Pasinler (also called battle of Kapetrou). Turks in East Anatolia.

1050: Pechenegs raid Byzantine territories.

1055: After a series of victories Tughrul is declared sultan (of Great Seljuk Sultanate) by the caliph.

1071: Alp Arslan of Seljuk Turks defeat Romanos Diogenes of Byzantine in the battle of Manzikert.

1072: Death of Alp Arslan. Malik Shah becomes the sultan.

1072: Danishmend Gazi who is the hero of epic tales Danishmendname founds a principality around Sivas, central Anatolia (i.e., Asatic side of present Turkey).

1072: Divan'ı Lügat'ı Türk. A book written by Kaşgarlı Mahmut of Karakhanids to be presented to Caliph, about Turks.

1077: Süleyman I (a cousin of Melik Shah) founds a state in what is now west Turkey. Although a vassal of Great Seljuk Empire it soon becomes totally independent. (Seljuks of Rum, Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, Sultanate of Rum, Seljuks of Turkey, Seljuks of Anatolia, Sultanate of Iconium are among the many names used for this state)

1077: Emergence of Khwarezm dynasty as a vassal of Great Seljuk Empire.

1081: Tzachas of Smyrna founds a beylik (principality) in İzmir, Western Anatolia and emerges as the first sea power in Turkish history.

1085: Tutush I, Malik Shah's brother founds a short lived principality in Syria.

1089: Hungarians defeat the Kipchaks.

1091: Kipchacks defeat the Pechenegs.

1093: Kipchacks defeat Sviatopolk II of Kievian Russians in the Battle of the Stugna River,

1096: Kılıç Arslan I of Seljuks defeats People's Crusade.

1097: During First Crusade Crusades defeat Seljuks at the Battle of Dorylaeum. Capital İznik captured by Crusades (New capıital Konya)

12th century

1101: Kılıç Arslan I of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm defeats Stephen of Blois and Hugh of Vermandois, of the second wave of First Crusades.

1104: Tuğtekin, atabeg of Damascus founds a short lived principality in Syria. First example of a series of Seljukid atabeg dynasties.

1121: A Seljuq army led by the Artuqid Ilghazi of Mardin is defeated by the Georgians near Tiflis.

1128: Zangi, atabeg of Mosul and Aleppo founds Zengid dynasty.

1141: Mongols of Khitan defeat Great Seljuk Sultan Sanjar in the Battle of Qatwan.

1146: Ildeniz, atabeg of Azerbaijan founds a dynasty, being the first independent Turkic dynasty of Azerbaijan.

1147: During Second Crusade, Mesud I of Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm defeats Holy Roman Emperor Conrad III in the second battle of Dorylaeum and French king Louis VII at battle of Laodicea.

1153: Great Seljuk sultan Sanjar is defeated by his Oguz vassals.

1154: Oghuz Turks destroy Library of Nishapur

1176: Kılıç Arslan II of Seljuks defeats Manuel I Komnenos of Byzantine Empire in the battle of Myriokephalon.

1178: End of Danishmends. Their territory is annexed by Kılıç Arslan II.

1190: German Holy Roman emperor Frederick I Barbarossa and a contingent of the Third Crusade defeat the Turks at the Battle of Konya (Iconium) in Southern Anatolia. He subsequently drowns whilst crossing the Göksu River, near Silifke.

13th century

1202: Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm defeat Saltukid principality and annex north eastern Anatolia.

1205: After the disintegration of Great Seljuk Sultanate, Kharzem shahs declare independence and conquer most of former Seljuk territory.

1206: Slave dynasty of Delhi established by Qutb-ud-din Aybak in India.

1209: Turpan Uyghurs become vassals of the Mongols.

1209: Birth of Nasreddin a satirical Sufi figure in Akşehir, Western Anatolia. His anectodes and jokes, especially those involving Mongol overlords after 1243, are always very popular in all Turkish speaking countries.

1211: Mongolic Khitans end East Karakhanids.

1212: Khwarezm shahs end West Karakhanids.

1220: Alaaddin Keykubat I becomes the Seljuk Sultan of Rûm.

1220: Mongols end Khwarezm Shāh.

1230: Alaaddin Keykubat I of Seljuks defeats Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu in the battle of Yassıçemen

1236: Razia Sultana of Delhi sultanate, the first female ruler in Islamic countries.

1239: Revolt of Baba Ishak. A revolt of Turkmen (Oguz) and Khwarzem refuges who have recently arrived in Anatolia. (The revolt is bloodily suppressed. But the sultanate loses power.)

1241: Mongols defeat Kipchacks.

1243: Ilkhanids defeat the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm in the battle of Kösedağ

1250: Aybek, a member of a cast of Kıpchack soldiers establishes Mameluk dynasty in Egypt

1260: Mameluk general (later sultan) Baybars defeats Ilkhanate leader Hulagu in Battle of Ayn Jalut.

1277: Karamanoğlu Mehmet Bey a semi independent bey (prince) in Anatolia (also a short term vizier of Seljuks) declares Turkish as the official language in his reign.

1293: Codex Cumanicus A Kipchack dictionary written for Latins.

1299: Ottoman Empire was founded by Osman I

Source: wikipedia.org

[history-of-turks-blog]

Huns

The Huns were a nomadic group of people who are known to have lived in Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia between the 1st century AD and the 7th century. They were first reported living east of the Volga River, in an area that was part of Scythia at the time; the Huns' arrival is associated with the migration westward of a Scythian people, the Alans. They were first mentioned as Hunnoi by Tacitus. In 91 AD, the Huns were said to be living near the Caspian Sea and by about 150 had migrated southeast into the Caucasus. By 370, the Huns had established a vast, if short-lived, dominion in Europe.

In the 18th century, the French scholar Joseph de Guignes became the first to propose a link between the Huns and the Xiongnu people, who were northern neighbours of China in the 3rd century BC. Since Guignes' time, considerable scholarly effort has been devoted to investigating such a connection. However, there is no scholarly consensus on a direct connection between the dominant element of the Xiongnu and that of the Huns. Priscus, a 5th-century Roman diplomat and Greek historian, mentions that the Huns had a language of their own; little of it has survived and its relationships have been the subject of debate for centuries. Numerous other ethnic groups were included under Attila's rule, including very many speakers of Gothic (East Germanic), which some modern authors describe as a lingua franca. Their main military technique was mounted archery.

The Huns may have stimulated the Great Migration, a contributing factor in the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. They formed a unified empire under Attila the Hun, who died in 453; their empire broke up the next year. 

Their descendants, or successors with similar names, are recorded by neighbouring populations to the south, east and west as having occupied parts of Eastern Europe and Central Asia approximately from the 4th century to the 6th century. Variants of the Hun name are recorded in the Caucasus until the early 8th century. +

[history-of-turks-blog]

Attila the Hun

Attila (434–453), frequently referred to as Attila the Hun, was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until his death in March 453. Attila was a leader of the Hunnic Empire, which stretched from the Ural River to the Rhine River and from the Danube River to the Baltic Sea.

During his reign, he was one of the most feared enemies of the Western and Eastern Roman Empires. He crossed the Danube twice and plundered the Balkans, but was unable to take Constantinople. His unsuccessful campaign in Persia was followed in 441 by an invasion of the Eastern Roman Empire, the success of which emboldened Attila to invade the West. He also attempted to conquer Roman Gaul (modern France), crossing the Rhine in 451 and marching as far as Aurelianum (Orléans) before being defeated at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains.

He subsequently invaded Italy, devastating the northern provinces, but was unable to take Rome. He planned for further campaigns against the Romans but died in 453. After Attila's death his close adviser Ardaric of the Gepids led a Germanic revolt against Hunnic rule, after which the Hunnic Empire quickly collapsed.

The origin and language of the Huns has been the subject of debate for centuries. According to some theories, their leaders at least may have spoken a Turkic language. Attila's father, Mundzuk, was the brother of the kings Octar and Rugila, who reigned jointly over the Hunnic empire in the early fifth century. The death of Rugila (also known as Rua or Ruga) in 434 left the sons of his brother Mundzuk, Attila and Bleda (Buda), in control of the united Hun tribes. +

[history-of-turks-blog]

Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan, c. 1162 – 18 August 1227, born Temüjin, was the founder and Great Khan (emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his demise.

He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of Northeast Asia. After founding the Mongol Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan," he started the Mongol invasions that resulted in the conquest of most of Eurasia. These included raids or invasions of the Kara-Khitan Khanate, Caucasus, Khwarezmid Empire, Western Xia and Jin dynasties. These campaigns were often accompanied by wholesale massacres of the civilian populations – especially in the Khwarezmian and Xia controlled lands. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of Central Asia and China.

Before Genghis Khan died, he assigned Ögedei Khan as his successor and split his empire into khanates among his sons and grandsons. He died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. He was buried in an unmarked grave somewhere in Mongolia at an unknown location. His descendants extended the Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia by conquering or creating vassal states out of all of modern-day China, Korea, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and substantial portions of modern Eastern Europe, Russia, and Southwest Asia. Many of these invasions repeated the earlier large-scale slaughters of local populations. As a result Genghis Khan and his empire have a fearsome reputation in local histories.

Beyond his military accomplishments, Genghis Khan also advanced the Mongol Empire in other ways. He decreed the adoption of the Uyghur script as the Mongol Empire's writing system. He also practiced meritocracy and encouraged religious tolerance in the Mongol Empire while unifying the nomadic tribes of Northeast Asia. Present-day Mongolians regard him as the founding father of Mongolia.

Condemned throughout most of history for the brutality of his campaigns, Genghis Khan is also credited with bringing the Silk Road under one cohesive political environment. This increased communication and trade from Northeast Asia to Muslim Southwest Asia and Christian Europe, thus expanding the horizons of all three cultural areas. +

[history-of-turks-blog]

Kublai Khan

The fifth Khagan of the Mongol Empire (Supreme Khan of the Mongols) The 1st Emperor of the Yuan dynasty Emperor of China.

Kublai was the fourth son of Tolui and a grandson of Genghis Khan. He succeeded his older brother Möngke as Khagan in 1260, but had to defeat his younger brother Ariq Böke in the Toluid Civil War lasting until 1264. This episode marked the beginning of disunity in the empire. Kublai's real power was limited to China and Mongolia, though as Khagan he still had influence in the Ilkhanate and, to a far lesser degree, in the Golden Horde. If one counts the Mongol Empire at that time as a whole, his realm reached from the Pacific to the Black Sea, from Siberia to modern day Afghanistan – one fifth of the world's inhabited land area

In 1271, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty, which ruled over present-day Mongolia, China, Korea, and some adjacent areas, and assumed the role of Emperor of China. By 1279, the Yuan forces had overcome the last resistance of the Southern Song dynasty, and Kublai became the first non-Han Emperor to conquer all of China. +