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Cyber harassment toward women

WEEK 10: Digital Citizenship and Conflict: Social Media Governance

People use the Internet at least once a day. Although both genders use the Internet, we observe a higher percentage of women being harassed online compared to men. Most reported cyberbullying and sexual harassment cases originate from social media sites, such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram.

How does cyber harassment inflict?

This sort of violence can occur in various from, such as online bullying, cyberstalking, hate speech, and public shaming. Cyber harassment can cause negative psychological, social, and procreative health consequences for victims and can sometimes progress to offline physical and sexual abuse. Furthermore, it has a substantial impact on the economy. For example, according to a 2019 study by The Australia Institute, online harassment and cyberhate cost Australia an estimated $3.7 billion in total in health expenditures and lost profits.

Social media plays a role.

Social media platforms have not created infrastructures that support women suffering from harassment and cyberbullying. Instead, they have created environments to facilitate such actions. Platforms like Facebook and Twitter force women to report personal cases of harassment and disinformation, only to get them denied or ignored, despite the actual harm impacted on victims’ lives and reputations.

While platforms have advanced their ability to detect some forms of online abuse, they have recognized the growing malign creativity employed by the harassers. The harassers noticed that certain words and phrases might trigger platforms’ detection mechanisms. To evade automatic removal, they then apply alternatives such as coded language, iterative, context-based visual and textual memes, and so on.

How can we enhance the situation?

Women have made many responses to sexual harassment on the Internet. Many carefully regulated forums have been created for women to speak, be heard, and have harassment vetted from the database. They are open for women to visit, giving specific advice and support once harassment has occurred.

Legal statutes are critical, especially in the case of severe threats. Taking a legal approach to halting online harassment, on the other hand, appears to be beneficial primarily as the last measure or in dire situations. Such actions should be carried out in an ethical manner, and it would have to be a meaningful learning experience for the man employing the harassment. To stop most occurrences of sexual harassment, it is best when women decide to confront the harassers for the sake of themselves.

REFERENCES

· Backe, EL, Lilleston, P & McCleary-Sills, J 2018, ‘Networked Individuals, Gendered Violence: A Literature Review of Cyberviolence’, Violence and Gender, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 135-146.

· Chadha, K, Steiner, L, Vitak, J & Ashktorab, Z 2020, ‘Women's Responses to Online Harassment’, International journal of communication (Online), vol. 14, pp. 239-257.

· Ostini, J & Hopkins, S 2015, Online harassment is a form of violence, The Conversation, viewed 31 March 2022, <https://theconversation.com/online-harassment-is-a-form-of-violence-38846>.

· The Australian Institute 2019, Online Harassment and Cyberhate costs Australians $3.7b, The Australian Institute, viewed 31 March 2022, <https://australiainstitute.org.au/post/online-harassment-and-cyberhate-costs-australians-3-7b/>.

· Vitis, L & Gilmour, F 2017, 'Dick pics on blast: A woman’s resistance to online sexual harassment using humour, art and Instagram', Crime, Media, Culture, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 335-355.

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How has the trend of slow fashion been intertwined with society?

WEEK 9: Digital citizenship case study: Social Media Influencers and the slow fashion movement

Society now recognizes that our environment can only maintain if a serious effort is made to protect it through environmentally friendly practices. The moment has come for the fashion industry to take the lead in promoting eco-friendly and sustainable practices. As they endeavor to satisfy the ever-changing demands of customers in the market, they should evaluate the following forces that may influence the efforts of stakeholders in this business when implementing the practices.

Historical context

Slow fashion has come a long way to get to where it is now. Designers used to put a lot of effort into creating items that met the demands of their fashionable customers. The problem of environmental protection was never a priority at that time. However, when the influence of climate change and global warming became obvious in the late 20th century, the trend began to shift. The economy's stakeholders are now attempting to enhance the situation of environmental pollution. The government is enacting legislation to limit industrial emissions and effluents. Designers, on the other hand, are increasingly adopting eco-friendly techniques as a means of improving sustainability.

Social context

The consequences of environmental contamination are becoming more widely recognized, as is the significance of adopting environmentally friendly behaviors. Owing to the increasing educational attainment of the general middle class, slow fashion is becoming a popular trend in most developed nations. Their increased support for environmentally friendly items is causing a new wave that shapes the design trend. Anyone who consumes an environmentally friendly product is deemed fashionable. As a result, manufacturers must refocus their efforts on what is currently trending in the market.

Economic context

Due to economic factors, companies have been forced to change their manufacturing tactics and processes in order to keep up with evolving trends. Eco-friendly and sustainable designs are in great demand in many developed countries. Customers are more willing to pay higher prices for products that can ensure that they are friendly and integrated with the natural environment. The financial benefits of creating these eco-friendly products are a strong incentive for designers to adopt the new approach.

Cultural context

The social responsibility of the companies is now intertwined with environmental practices. The culture of environmental conservation is pushing stakeholders in the fashion industry to be more careful about the materials used in their designs. Previously, their focus was on producing things that did not last long in fashion as a strategy to boost sales and profits. Companies, on the other hand, are now figuring out how to increase sales and profits without releasing an unmanageable quantity of waste into the environment.

REFERENCES

· Brewer, MK 2019, ‘Slow Fashion in a Fast Fashion World: Promoting Sustainability and Responsibility’, Laws, vol. 8, no. 4, p. 24.

· Lai, Z, Henninger, CE & Alevizou, PJ 2017, ‘An Exploration of Consumers’ Perceptions Towards Sustainable Fashion – A Qualitative Study in the UK’, in CE Henninger, PJ Alevizou, H Goworek & D Ryding (eds), Sustainability in Fashion: A Cradle to Upcycle Approach, Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp. 81-101.

· Sinha, P, Muthu, SS & Dissanayake, G 2016, Remanufactured Fashion, Springer Singapore, Springer eBooks.

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Not playing, but more like watching – It’s the era of video game live-streaming!

WEEK 8: Gaming Communities, Social Gaming and Live Streaming

According to Morning Consult's research, 86% of young American participants are eager to experience an influence on social media platforms. The gaming industry also highlights another new normal: over the last decade, video games have grown increasingly interwoven with video streaming, with YouTube and Twitch becoming so prevalent among gamers that they now have sway over the whole industry.

The concept of watching others playing games is more familiar in nowadays society. Although the games' main allure is player interactivity, they nonetheless have a lot to offer the audiences, from thrilling stories to a barrage of sensory stimuli. Then what is the reason for the recently increasing number of people watching streamers playing games on YouTube instead of trying them themselves?

It was discovered that on YouTube, the general public could experience new games that they didn't have the money to purchase or were hesitant about buying. They can also observe extremely competent game players (streamers) demonstrating their skills. People perceive such experiences as satisfying and thrilling.

Such videos inspired Twitch and video game live-streaming, which has grown into a multibillion-dollar industry. These platforms allow gamers to stream themselves playing various video games for up to 60 hours a week. Many people enjoy this type of entertainment. A Deloitte report indicated that 45% of active players watch other live-stream gaming. It becomes part of young people’s life by combining with social media’s magnetic characteristics, which is more personalized and thus more addictive.

The top Twitch streamers can make up to millions of dollars annually. The main reason for the popularity of this platform might be its advanced social features, allowing streamers to grow their tight-knit fandom. The growing influence of Twitch and YouTube has begun to shape the whole gaming industry. The adoption of famous gaming streamers has led to the success of many popular video games. Thus, targeting these streamers is also a reasonable and indispensable part of gaming companies’ marketing strategies.

Generally, video game live-streaming seems to be a desirable and comforting career. However, it also comes with a number of drawbacks, especially particularly in terms of the physical demands of these streamers, who sweat blood for hours in front of their computers throughout the nights due to the nature of their job.

REFERENCES

· Edge, N 2013, ‘Evolution of the Gaming Experience: Live Video Streaming and the Emergence of a New Web Community’, Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications, vol. 4, no. 2, viewed 27 March 2022, <http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/821/evolution-of-the-gaming-experience-live-video-streaming-and-the-emergence-of-a-new-web-community>.

· Johnson, MR & Woodcock, J 2018, ‘The impacts of live streaming and Twitch.tv on the video game industry’, Media, Culture & Society, vol. 41, no. 5, pp. 670-688.

· Min, S 2019, ‘86% of young Americans want to become a social media influencer’, CBS News, 8 November, viewed 26 March 2022, <https://www.cbsnews.com/news/social-media-influencers-86-of-young-americans-want-to-become-one/>.

· Taylor, TL 2018, Watch Me Play: Twitch and the Rise of Game Live Streaming, Princeton University Press, JSTOR Open Access e-books.

· Westcott, K, Arbanas, J, Arkenberg, C, Auxier, B, Loucks, J & Downs, K 2021, Streaming video on demand, social media, and gaming trends, Deloitte Insights, viewed 26 March 2022, <https://www2.deloitte.com/us/en/insights/industry/technology/svod-social-media-gaming-trends.html>.

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Social media beauty filters aren’t ‘’beautiful’’ as we thought!

WEEK 7: Digital Citizenship and Software literacy: Instagram Filters

We express ourselves on social media by posting our selfies, photos, and videos on these social platforms. If you use Instagram, Snapchat, or TikTok, there's a good chance that you have experimented with the filters on these apps. They may be entertaining or make us feel more appreciated and attractive. Such filters are popular for emphasizing “standard” beauty features, such as a small nose, a perfect-shaped face, a thin body, a light skin tone, etc.

However, the beauty filters on social media might do more harm than good by modifying the users’ expectations of their "real" image. Apart from the above, some filters totally alter the appearance of the face by smoothing out every pore, thickening the lips, and adjusting the shape of the eyes. A study by City University London revealed that 90% of the participants use a beauty filter or edit their pictures before putting them on social media.

It is agreed that beauty filters are threatening and damaging to the users’ mental health. Many people, especially young women, suffer from a lack of confidence and fear of being judged by their appearance. Thus, they tend to utilize filters to acquire a society-approved image and ignore their inherent attractiveness. There also remains a relationship between social media filters and lower self-esteem. The young generation is experiencing low self-esteem and is obsessed with fitting in the beauty standards that social media filters impose on them.

Such stress may lead to depression, eating problems, and even suicidal thoughts in teens. Furthermore, social media can have a huge impact on people of all ages, making them suffer from a phenomenon called “Snapchat dysmorphia”. It is a sort of body image disorder characterized by the desire to laboriously adjust one's own online image, which might result in a trend in plastic surgery uptakes. More remarkable is that these people even provide the filtered version of themselves as inspiration.

So how can we limit the negative consequences of using beauty filters on social media? The first and foremost step is awareness. A good initial step is to mentally and intentionally remind ourselves that these “ideal” online images are not real. It is also crucial to recognize whether you are drowning in dissatisfaction, depression, or anxiety. Moreover, social media are echo chambers, with the algorithms designed to surround you with the content based on what you show interest in. If you follow body-positive people, who encourage authenticity, then you are more inclined to surround yourself with and believe in such values.

REFERENCES

· Barker, J 2020, ‘Making-up on mobile: The pretty filters and ugly implications of Snapchat’, Fashion, Style & Popular Culture, vol. 7, no. 2-3, pp. 207-221.

· Boys & Girls Clubs of America 2021, Digital Distortion: How Filters are Changing the Way Girls See Themselves, Boys & Girls Clubs of America, viewed 26 March 2022, <https://www.bgca.org/news-stories/2021/September/digital-distortion-how-filters-are-changing-the-way-girls-see-themselves>.

· Cruz, A 2019, ‘Let's Take a Selfie! Living in a Snapchat Beauty Filtered World: The Impact it Has on Women's Beauty Perceptions’, MA thesis, University of Central Florida, Orlando.

· Rettberg, JW 2014, Seeing Ourselves Through Technology: How We Use Selfies, Blogs and Wearable Devices to See and Shape Ourselves, Palgrave Macmillan, SpringerLink Open Access eBooks.

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Pornification on Social Media

WEEK 6: Digital Citizenship and health education: Body modification on Visual Social Media

How have online social images been pornified?

For influencers, the body plays a crucial role in the ‘selfies’ that are the product of their prosumer labour. It has been observed that one of the easiest ways for women to gain attention on social media is through a highly pornified aesthetic.

Sexualized photographs on social media have been tied to broader societal forces, suggesting to women that sexiness is both appreciated and a way of attracting attention. Nowadays, the ‘’porn chic’’ style has increasingly come to define sexiness in online spaces. The ‘’porn chic’’ images are the prime tool these microcelebrities utilize to gain notice and interaction from their audience, who are generally assumed as men.

How have pornified online images been used for monetization?

The pornified self-representations by female Instagram influencers have been shown as the ideal of sexiness and sexual availability. These representations range from “softer” references, in which influencers pose to highlight body parts and employ ‘’porn chic’’ gestures such as gently pulling hair, touching lips, and squatting with legs spread to the camera, to some images that are hard to differentiate from commercial pornography.

Researchers have found 5 types of influencers working in sexualized labour: hopefuls, boasters, engagers, boosters, and performers, who experience a continuum from non-monetized and low attention practices to monetized and high attention practices.

For example, the hopefuls, those with the lowest attention level, use affiliate labor practices such as tagging multiple potential brand affiliates to get noticed or discovered without compensation. Meanwhile, performers, who get the most attention, use Instagram as a teaser to redirect viewers to more direct-access paid pornography on external sites, such as private Snapchat, WhatsApp, and OnlyFans.com, where private chats and more overt sexual content is available.

What consequences and risks do pornified labour workers take?

All these sexualized monetizing behaviors come at the cost of significant sexual harassment, which many argue is poorly policed by Instagram. Many female influencers are subject to sexually aggressive comments and messages from followers and a lack of privacy in their personal lives. They are often subject to sexual solicitation and even physical threats.

However, influencers must pay the price for rebuking harassment or eliminating harsh comments. More interaction, which includes comments like this, means more potential attention for a given content. In fact, they link directly to their capacity to profit from their attention. Therefore, to those working in sexualized labour, reading such harassment, and deciding not to delete it, just becomes “part of the job”. The fear of losing a brand connection forces these influencers to grow their base by interacting with followers in an optimistic, positive, and sociable way.

Social media influencers are relatively vulnerable due to the intensity, volume, and public characteristics of the harassment. However, in dealing with these continual and unavoidable engagements, they lack the support of a typical workplace and employer.

REFERENCES

· Drenten, J, Gurrieri, L & Tyler, M 2019, ‘Sexualized labour in digital culture: Instagram influencers, porn chic and the monetization of attention’, Gender, Work, and Organization, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 41-66.

· Drenten, J, Gurrieri, L & Tyler, M 2019, How highly sexualised imagery is shaping ‘influence’ on Instagram - and harassment is rife, The Conversation, viewed 26 March 2022, <https://theconversation.com/how-highly-sexualised-imagery-is-shaping-influence-on-instagram-and-harassment-is-rife-113030>.

· Lasén, A & García, A 2015, “… but I haven’t got a body to show’: Self-pornification and male mixed feelings in digitally mediated seduction practices’, Sexualities, vol. 18, no. 5-6, pp. 714-730.

· Plieger, T, Groote, O, Hensky, R, Hurtenbach, L, Sahler, S, Thönes, L & Reuter, M 2021, ‘The Association Between Sexism, Self-Sexualization, and the Evaluation of Sexy Photos on Instagram’, Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 12, p. 716417.

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How has social media facilitated digital activism?

WEEK 5: What is digital citizenship? Hashtag Publics, political engagement, and activism

What is digital activism?

Digital activism is often explained as the practice of using digital technologies to engage in social and political campaigns (Joyce 2010, p. vii). It has been facilitated by the enhancement of communication technology over the years. The booming of the Internet, particularly social media, created an open public space for people to participate in, allowing more people to be part of public speech, thereby encouraging digital activism to explode. It is obvious to witness the indispensable role of social media in the development of digital activism.

Social media facilitates the less powerful to confidently raise their voice.

As long as their device is connected to the Internet and their message is meaningful to the public, even regular people can raise their concerns about any problems remaining in the society and run their campaigns, even simply with a hashtag. For example, the movement Black Lives Matter (BLM) originated in 2012 with a hashtag on social media and still continues at present, or the Ice Bucket Challenge started by a Twitter video of ALS patients in 2014. The challenge soon became viral and attracted over 28 million people to interact with the activity, with over 2.4 million videos posted on Facebook only (Rodriguez 2014). Not only attracting people with shared concerns, but social media is also a powerful tool in raising public consciousness and influencing the public to take part in the activities.

Social media encourages every person to engage with activism.

Social media removes the physical obstacles and gathers individuals in a shared space. It allows every person to contribute to a movement by interacting with the features and related content spread on social media platforms and, in turn, producing and uploading their own content relevant to that movement. Offering various communication methods (texts, images, videos, etc.), social media plays a powerful role in assisting the users to establish, distribute and exchange content.

Social media boosts the flow of information.

These social networking platforms stimulate the information to travel quicker and farther to reach a wider audience. They utilize algorithms to continuously push onto a user’s feed the content and information relevant to their concerns, the users are then more likely to engage with them. In turn, their interactions continue to spread the material to other individuals in their networks, preserving and expanding the flow of information.

REFERENCES

· Ariadne, V 2017, Digital Citizenship and Political Engagement: The Challenge from Online Campaigning and Advocacy Organisations, Palgrave Macmillan, Springer eBooks.

· Joyce, M 2010, Digital Activism Decoded: The New Mechanics of Change, International Debate Education Association, Ebook Central (ProQuest).

· Leong, C, Pan, S, Bahri, S & Fauzi, A 2019, ‘Social Media Empowerment in Social Movements: Power Activation and Power Accrual in Digital Activism’, European Journal of Information Systems, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 173-204.

· Madhumathi, J, Sinha, R, Veeraraghavan, B & Walia, K 2021, ‘Use of “Social Media”—an Option for Spreading Awareness in Infection Prevention’, Current Treatment Options in Infectious Diseases, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 14-31.

· Rodriguez, S 2014, ‘More than 2.4 million ice bucket challenge videos raise $15.6 million’, Los Angeles Times, 18 August, viewed 25 March 2022, <https://www.latimes.com/business/technology/la-fi-tn-ice-bucket-challenge-16-million-elon-musk-20140818-htmlstory.html>.

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Reality TV – Pros and Cons

WEEK 4: Digital Community and Fandom: Reality TV Case Study

What is Reality TV?

Reality television is a television genre that seeks to portray how regular people often act in their daily life or in certain scenarios arranged by a show’s creators which resemble everyday life. After the seem-to-be-endless age of daily soaps, reality TV shows have grown to be extremely widespread. Despite playing a vital role in the development of nations’ media, reality TV actually has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Pros of Reality TV

1. It provides a public space for citizens to discuss social issues.

One of the most beneficial aspects of reality TV is that it exposes viewers to societal flaws, thereby more likely addressing a variety of social concerns. Reality TV acts as a public sphere facilitating its participants to express and exchange their thoughts and views on social, particularly political, problems. By fostering such discussions, it helps people be more informed and aware of unsolved problems that may often be overlooked on mainstream media.

2. It offers opportunities for a successful career for potential celebrities.

Many big stars and celebrities are born from reality TV shows. They facilitate even common individuals to appear in front of the public and demonstrate their abilities to the viewers. Reality TV increases the chance of such people being closer and more familiar with the audience, helping them to recognize their potential. It used to be impossible, but now anyone can become famous and well-known in a relatively short amount of time.

Cons of Reality TV

1. The issue of dishonesty and authenticity.

Reality TV is deceitful as it even twists the truth to increase the viewership ratings. Several "reality" shows are scripted, and everything is tightly controlled. The producers attempt to keep their shows interesting by selecting individuals who seem to conflict with each other. They then are put in uncommon circumstances and assigned weird tasks to act strangely. Eventually, they are filmed from various angles, but only the most dramatic scenes are then revealed. The producer might use intentional editing to generate so-called storylines and hence distort what actually transpired.

2. The audience participation might be monetized.

These monetization mechanisms are overt — for example, in some competing programs with a grand prize, people will be charged for voting for their favorite candidate via phone or text. However, owing to the ability to earn from advertising revenues within program duration, monetization can take place a little more discreetly. Advertising opportunities have exploded, partly due to the development of mobile apps. Users will promptly encounter a series of marketing actions for the show as well as a variety of its commercial partners after downloading its official app.

Conclusion

Reality TV shows are profit-motivated, but it does create beneficial opportunities. We must evaluate both sides of a coin. Hence, I support producing these shows as long as they ensure the limit and quality. It is also the personal responsibility to watch these shows in moderation and make informed choices.

REFERENCES

· Deller, R 2019, Reality Television: The Television Phenomenon That Changed the World, Emerald Publishing Limited, Ebook Central (ProQuest).

· Graham, T & Hajru, A 2011, ‘Reality TV as a trigger of everyday political talk in the net-based public sphere’, European Journal of Communication, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 18-32.

· Hill, A 2014, Reality TV, Taylor & Francis Group, Ebook Central (ProQuest).

· L'Hoiry, X 2019, ‘Love Island, Social Media, and Sousveillance: New Pathways of Challenging Realism in Reality TV’, Frontiers in Sociology, vol. 4, no. 59, pp. 1-13.

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How does Tumblr function as a digital community?

WEEK 3: Digital Communities and Blogging: Tumblr Case Study 

What is a digital community?

A digital community assembles people who share common ideas, beliefs, and interests that depend on digital technologies - e.g., smartphones, the Internet - to connect, socialize, and exchange information (IGI Global 2022). Through online forums and platforms, these members can utilize different tools and media to communicate and convey their messages most conveniently and effectively.

Acknowledging this ability, Tumblr is an excellent example for a digital community and, to some extent, a public sphere: a place where the dispersed individuals could come together and unhampered discuss to further knowledge, which can lead to significant improvements (Kruse, Norris & Flinchum 2018, p. 62). Based on a public sphere’s characteristics, there are several factors making Tumblr fit into the category. However, from my viewpoint, the two following reasons best explain how Tumblr functions as a digital community.

Tumblr - An open place for everyone

First of all, Tumblr provides an open space for its users to participate in, including unlimited access to information and the freedom to express opinions. Enabled by the Internet, people can freely go on the platform to communicate, interact, and connect with others who share similar concerns with them. Hence, it should be said that Tumblr has empowered the powerless to raise their voice for their own good and offered them the opportunities to form and solidly build their communities (McCracken 2020, p. 38).

An example of how Tumblr has supported the powerless is observed in Calhoun’s study (2020, pp. 48-63) of how Black people have been utilizing the platform to raise awareness and make social changes for equality. She identifies that Black Tumblr participates in online activism in four principal ways, involving “(1) challenging hegemonic negative ideologies about Black people, (2) promoting dialogue about under-discussed issues, (3) bringing attention to hypocritical or insensitive actions and beliefs that negatively affect Black individuals, and (4) promoting positive representations of Black people” (Calhoun 2020, p. 48).

Anonymity on Tumblr

Additionally, Tumblr offers its users the comfortableness to engage in the platform without surveillance by remaining their activities anonymous. Unlike other social media platforms, Tumblr does not force its users to create any personal profile or form any networks of friends to join the community (Keller 2019, p. 7). Hence, Tumblr users’ identification is well-secured and extremely difficult to detect. This advantage makes Tumblr users feel safer when sharing their thoughts and ideas on the platform without the fear of being recognized and judged (Reeve 2016). It also encourages people to concentrate on the content being discussed rather than the person publishing it, thereby increasing the effectiveness of communicating information.

REFERENCES

·       Calhoun, K 2020, ‘Blackout, Black Excellence, Black Power Strategies of Everyday Online Activism on Black Tumblr’, in A McCracken, A Cho, L Stein & IN Hoch (eds), a tumblr book: platform and cultures, University of Michigan Press, Michigan, pp. 48-63.

·       IGI Global 2022, What is Digital Communities, IGI Global, viewed 25 January 2022, <https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/creating-analytical-lens-understanding-digital/7583>.

·       Keller, J 2019, ‘“Oh, She’s a Tumblr Feminist”: Exploring the Platform Vernacular of Girls’ Social Media Feminisms’, Social Media + Society, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 1-11.

·       Kruse, L, Norris, D & Flinchum, J 2018, ‘Social Media as a Public Sphere? Politics on Social Media’, The Sociological Quarterly, vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 62-84.

·       McCracken, A 2020, ‘Going Down the Rabbit Hole: An Interview with Amanda Brennan, Head of Content Insights and Social, Tumblr’, in A McCracken, A Cho, L Stein & IN Hoch (eds), a tumblr book: platform and cultures, University of Michigan Press, Michigan, pp. 37-48.

·       Reeve, E 2016, ‘The Secret Lives of Tumblr Teens’, The New Republic, 17 February, viewed 7 February 2022, <https://newrepublic.com/article/129002/secret-lives-tumblr-teens >.