#basal forebrain

[quotesfrommyreading]

I’d learned by this point that comparing brains is a difficult business in general. In explaining how clever humans are, we often point out the extraordinarily large size of our thinking organs. Their bulk is the bane of childbirth and consumes 90 percent of the glucose in our blood. But size itself is not a clear guide for comparing animal intelligences, as some bigger animals with larger brains seem to lack the cognitive abilities of smaller ones. Size, as the saying goes, isn’t everything. Relative brain-to-body size, how wrinkled and complex brains are, the thickness of their layers, the structures within them, and the types of neurons these are made of are all helpful—though our human brains are, naturally, the yardstick that other brains are measured against. And yet it is impossible to look at a whale brain and not be surprised by its size. When Hof first saw one, despite knowing they were big, its mass still shocked him. The human brain is about 1,350 grams, three times larger than our big-brained relative, the chimpanzee. A sperm whale or killer whale brain can be 10 kilograms. These are the biggest brains on Earth and possibly the biggest brains ever, anywhere. It’s perhaps not a fair comparison: in relation to the size of our bodies, our brains are bigger than those of whales. Ours are similar in proportion to our body mass, as are the brains of some rodents; mice and men both invest a lot of themselves in their thinking organs. But we both lag far behind small birds and ants, which have much bigger brains compared to their body size than any big animals.

The outer layer of a mammal’s brain is called the cerebral cortex. In cross section, it looks a little like a wraparound bicycle helmet sitting on top of the other parts of the brain. This is the most recently evolved part of our brains, and it was by using their own cerebral cortexes that brain scientists have learned that this area is responsible for rational, conscious thought.

It handles tasks like perceiving senses, thinking, movement, figuring out how you relate to the space around you, and language. You are using yours now to read and think about this sentence. Many biologists define “intelligence” as something along the lines of the mental and behavioral flexibility of an organism to solve problems and come up with novel solutions. In humans, the cerebral cortex, acting with other bits of the brain (the basal ganglia, basal forebrain, and dorsal thalamus), appears to be the seat of this form of “intelligence.” The more cortex you have and the more wrinkled it is, the more surface area available for making connections—and voila! More thinking.

Humans have a really large neocortex surface area, but it’s still just over half that of a common dolphin, and miles behind the sperm whale. Even if you divide the cortex area by the total weight of the brain to remove the cetacean size advantage, humans still lag behind dolphins and killer whales. But there are other measurements in the cortex that seem to be associated with intelligence, and here, dolphins and whales lag behind humans.

The more neurons are packed in, how closely and effectively they are wired, and how fast they transmit impulses are also extremely important in brain function. Just as the composition and layout of the chipset in your tiny, cheap cellphone allows it to pack more computing power than a five-tonne room-sized 1970s supercomputer. Both cetaceans and elephants, the biggest mammals on sea and land, seem to have large distances between their neurons and slower conduction speeds. In raw numbers of neurons, humans here, too, have the edge, with a human cortex containing an estimated 15 billion neurons. Given the larger size of cetacean brains, you’d think they’d have more, but in fact their cerebral cortex is thinner, and the neurons are fatter, taking up more room.

Nevertheless, some cetaceans such as the false killer whale are close behind human levels with 10.5 billion cerebral neurons, about the same as an elephant. Chimps have 6.2 billion and gorillas 4.3 billion. Further complicating comparisons, whales have huge numbers of other kinds of cells, called glia, packing their cortexes. Until recently, we believed these glial cells to be an unthinking filler, but we’ve now discovered that they actually seem important for cognition, too. I don’t know about you, but all this cortex measurement and comparison makes my own feeble organ hurt.

 —   In the Mind of a Whale

[extrajigs]

BRAINS SLASH MAGIC 

Discussions of thinking/role of magic for chimeras. Yeah there’s ~Magic~ in Mirum its kind of complicated. The gist is that it’s like a divine rot that has been there long enough for life to adapt around it. 

Wall of Text Time

The brain can be separated into two main portions, the hindbrain, which contains regions needed for movement of the body, sensory processing, basal survival needs. The forebrain, connected by a thick cord of nerve to the main brain, is where consciousness is housed and where magic is managed. For example the eyes may be right next to the forebrain, but sight is still processed in the hindbrain. It’s basically like having two separate brains, one to think and solely process magic and one to actually keep the body alive. So theoretically, disregarding bloodloss and infection, the forebrain could be completely removed without causing death. Neat!  Now magic is a big beast to handle and I’ll need a separate post to get into all that. But all you NEED to know is magic is air based and sourced from the corpse of a fallen God slowly corrupting the world. So most creatures using magic will turn to their respiratory system to help aid in that, magic being in the air and all. But the chimera instead accumulate magic within spongey, fluid filled chambers within their faceplate. Here it is processed into a thick, resin with a far higher magic concentration that the air would be able to provide. Resin when needed is pumped into the smaller crest of a chimera where it can actually be used for casting. 

Casting is basically just the resin going through all the winding chambers within the crest to exit out these long pores lining the inner ring, now exposed to the air, magic can be used and casting can take place. Spent resin will loose its high viscosity and sweat out the crest and down the face. Right over that center eye. This typically only happens with heavy and sustained use of magic, when more is spent than can be reabsorbed. 

And chimeras use the FUCK out of their magic, it is their preferred method of communication, basically just broadcasting their thoughts to those around them to the point that their society is a noisey cacophony in the mind. They cant read thoughts though, most are not advanced enough magic users for that, and they can focus their thoughts to broadcast to just one or a few people. But small spells, like creating light and minor elemental magic comes naturally to them, given the resources they tend to dominate magical spaces they have access too. And to fast forward a bit to the present with them, their magic has advanced to the point to be able to rival the Gods. 

Being that their crest is pretty much their wand, any damage to it is a grievous injury. It needs to be relatively close to circular to work, the closer to a perfect circle, the more efficient your casting. An actual break is enough to permanently mute a chimera and end their magical capability. Running out of resin will have the same effect temporarily as it is replaced, literally just running out of juice. 

Also why their babies are so different looking than adults face plate-wise, their faceplate and crest are used to help direct their magic more accurately. Kid’s struggle with aiming their spells until their face is fully developed. 

[compneuropapers]

Interesting Papers for Week 44, 2023

Rhythmic temporal coordination of neural activity prevents representational conflict during working memory. Abdalaziz, M., Redding, Z. V., & Fiebelkorn, I. C. (2023). Current Biology, 33(9), 1855-1863.e3.

Which processes dominate visual search: Bottom-up feature contrast, top-down tuning or trial history? Becker, S. I., Grubert, A., Horstmann, G., & Ansorge, U. (2023). Cognition, 236, 105420.

Neural dynamics underlying associative learning in the dorsal and ventral hippocampus. Biane, J. S., Ladow, M. A., Stefanini, F., Boddu, S. P., Fan, A., Hassan, S., … Kheirbek, M. A. (2023). Nature Neuroscience, 26(5), 798–809.

A reservoir of foraging decision variables in the mouse brain. Cazettes, F., Mazzucato, L., Murakami, M., Morais, J. P., Augusto, E., Renart, A., & Mainen, Z. F. (2023). Nature Neuroscience, 26(5), 840–849.

Spike-phase coupling patterns reveal laminar identity in primate cortex. Davis, Z. W., Dotson, N. M., Franken, T. P., Muller, L., & Reynolds, J. H. (2023). eLife, 12, e84512.

Is all mental effort equal? The role of cognitive demand-type on effort avoidance. Embrey, J. R., Donkin, C., & Newell, B. R. (2023). Cognition, 236, 105440.

Ventral striatum dopamine release encodes unique properties of visual stimuli in mice. Gonzalez, L. S., Fisher, A. A., D’Souza, S. P., Cotella, E. M., Lang, R. A., & Robinson, J. E. (2023). eLife, 12, e85064.

Computational complexity drives sustained deliberation. Hong, T., & Stauffer, W. R. (2023). Nature Neuroscience, 26(5), 850–857.

Mathematical Model of Synaptic Long-Term Potentiation as a Bistability in a Chain of Biochemical Reactions with a Positive Feedback. Katauskis, P., Ivanauskas, F., & Alaburda, A. (2023). Acta Biotheoretica, 71(3), 16.

Geometric determinants of the postrhinal egocentric spatial map. LaChance, P. A., & Taube, J. S. (2023). Current Biology, 33(9), 1728-1743.e7.

Learning at your brain’s rhythm: individualized entrainment boosts learning for perceptual decisions. Michael, E., Covarrubias, L. S., Leong, V., & Kourtzi, Z. (2023). Cerebral Cortex, 33(9), 5382–5394.

Retinal motion statistics during natural locomotion. Muller, K. S., Matthis, J., Bonnen, K., Cormack, L. K., Huk, A. C., & Hayhoe, M. (2023). eLife, 12, e82410.

Neural dynamics and architecture of the heading direction circuit in zebrafish. Petrucco, L., Lavian, H., Wu, Y. K., Svara, F., Štih, V., & Portugues, R. (2023). Nature Neuroscience, 26(5), 765–773.

Elucidating a locus coeruleus-dentate gyrus dopamine pathway for operant reinforcement. Petter, E. A., Fallon, I. P., Hughes, R. N., Watson, G. D., Meck, W. H., Ulloa Severino, F. P., & Yin, H. H. (2023). eLife, 12, e83600.

Principles for coding associative memories in a compact neural network. Pritz, C., Itskovits, E., Bokman, E., Ruach, R., Gritsenko, V., Nelken, T., … Zaslaver, A. (2023). eLife, 12, e74434.

Critical Drift in a Neuro-Inspired Adaptive Network. Sormunen, S., Gross, T., & Saramäki, J. (2023). Physical Review Letters, 130(18), 188401.

Dopaminergic prediction errors in the ventral tegmental area reflect a multithreaded predictive model. Takahashi, Y. K., Stalnaker, T. A., Mueller, L. E., Harootonian, S. K., Langdon, A. J., & Schoenbaum, G. (2023). Nature Neuroscience, 26(5), 830–839.

Inhibitory control of sharp-wave ripple duration during learning in hippocampal recurrent networks. Vancura, B., Geiller, T., Grosmark, A., Zhao, V., & Losonczy, A. (2023). Nature Neuroscience, 26(5), 788–797.

Optogenetics reveals paradoxical network stabilizations in hippocampal CA1 and CA3. Watkins de Jong, L., Nejad, M. M., Yoon, E., Cheng, S., & Diba, K. (2023). Current Biology, 33(9), 1689-1703.e5.

The cholinergic basal forebrain provides a parallel channel for state-dependent sensory signaling to auditory cortex. Zhu, F., Elnozahy, S., Lawlor, J., & Kuchibhotla, K. V. (2023). Nature Neuroscience, 26(5), 810–819.

[er-cryptid]

Basal Nuclei

-- initiates and terminates body movement

-- at forebrain base and midbrain top

-- interconnected with cerebral cortex, thalamus, and brainstem

[inspiration-3000]

The Mysteries of Motivation: Deep Dive into the Brain's Role

Our ideas, feelings, and, most crucially, our motivations all originate in the human brain, a natural miracle. But what is it in the human brain that causes us to take action, strive, and succeed? This article explores the exciting issue of Motivation by delving into the intricate neurological systems that support it. We'll learn about the brain regions that play a part in Motivation, the chemicals that play a part in that process, and the effects that neurological illnesses may have on our drive. We'll also discuss where this field of Study is going and how we can tap into the brain's latent motivational powers.

Which Part of Your Brain is Involved in Your Motivation?

Which Part Of Your Brain Is Involved In Your Motivation? The Limbic System, the Source of All Drive The limbic system, or "emotional brain," is fundamental regarding our drive and Motivation. The hippocampus and the amygdala are the only parts of this intricate network that govern our reward and punishment systems. The limbic system is pivotal in memory formation and regulates our emotional lives. The emotional component of memory causes us to anticipate or fear certain occurrences in the future. The Function of the Basal Forebrain in Memory and Learning The basal forebrain is engaged in learning and memory and is a crucial component of Motivation. It aids in shaping future behavior by associating it with positive or negative outcomes. This brain region is also essential for maintaining focus, regulating wakefulness, and falling asleep. It's vital for sensory perception and free-willed movement because it supplies the cerebral cortex with acetylcholine.

How Neurotransmitters Like Dopamine Drive Behavior

  Dopamine, the Heroin of the Reward System Dopamine is a neurotransmitter often known as the "feel-good chemical of the brain." When we experience pleasure, our brains produce dopamine, which reinforces and motivates us to pursue similar experiences in the future. Dopamine regulates the secretion of other hormones and is also involved in motor control. Regarding the motivational aspect of reward-motivated behavior, these dopamine pathways are crucial. The Nucleus Accumbens and the Ventral Tegmental Area Work Together to Process Rewards The nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area (VTA) are inseparable when processing rewards and inspiring action. The anticipation of a reward triggers the release of dopamine in these regions. The nucleus accumbens, among other brain regions, receives dopamine from the ventral tegmental area (VTA), which ultimately causes a sensation of reward or pleasure. This drives us to keep doing things that are rewarding in the first place. Dopamine's Effects on Mood and Reinforcement Learning Dopamine is also crucial in the formation of emotional responses and long-term memory. It reinforces existing synapses by reinforcing positive connections in the hippocampus (the brain's learning and memory hub). This step is essential for reward learning to take place, in which we learn to repeat actions that resulted in satisfying results in the past.

Which region of the brain is responsible for our desires and emotions?

  Physiology of the Amygdala The Brain's Emotional Control Center Emotional processing relies heavily on the amygdala, a little almond-shaped structure in the brain. It influences our motives and emotions and plays a pivotal role in the fear and pleasure responses. The amygdala also helps choose which memories to keep and where in the brain to keep them. This metric considers the intensity of the felt impact of an inevitable occurrence. For example, if a person goes through an emotionally taxing experience, the amygdala directs them to file away their thoughts and feelings about that time. The Motivating Power of the Prefrontal Cortex The frontal lobe of the brain, known as the prefrontal cortex, is responsible for executive functions such as planning, decision-making, and social conduct. It's essential to our Motivation since it aids in weighing potential gains against costs and deciding how best to proceed. The prefrontal cortex also controls executive tasks, including time management, focus switching, detail recall, self-control, and incorporating previous experiences into current actions. One of the Brain's Most Important Reward and Motivation Centers Another important brain region involved in Motivation is the striatum in the basal ganglia. It's active when we're feeling driven to do something since it plays a role in the brain's reward processing system. In addition to its function in motor and movement planning, the striatum is also involved in decision-making, Motivation, reinforcement, and the perception of rewards.

Where Do You Find Your Drive? Frontal Lobe?

  Motivation and Self-Control Rely on the Lateral Prefrontal Cortex. The frontal lobe's lateral prefrontal cortex has a role in self-control. A key component of Motivation, willpower allows us to rein in urges and make choices that support our long-term objectives. Working memory, cognitive flexibility, planning, inhibition, and abstract thinking depend on activity in this part of the brain. Implications of Frontal Lobe Development on Risk-Taking and Social Acceptance During this time, a lot of development occurs in the brain's frontal lobe. Teenagers are often highly driven by peer approval and may participate in dangerous activities to get it, which might impact Motivation throughout this development stage. The frontal lobe is also responsible for movement, problem-solving, spontaneity, memory, language, beginning new tasks, judging, resisting temptation, and engaging in social and sexual conduct.

Imbalances in the Brain's Reward System and Psychiatric Illness

Brain's Reward System The Lateral Habenula Is an Important Part of the Brain's Reward System The small brain region known as the lateral habenula is pivotal in the brain's reward system. Dysfunction in this region has been associated with mental diseases characterized by excessive aggressiveness, which is thought to encode punishment by suppressing dopamine release. The lateral habenula is engaged in more than only pain processing; it also plays a role in reproduction, eating, sleeping, stress management, and immune function. Damage to the Brain's Reward System as a Cause of Aggression Misdirected activation of the brain's reward system in response to aggressive social cues is one possible cause of aggression. When stimulated, some parts of the amygdala may cause anger and aggressiveness, while other portions, when removed, can make laboratory animals more submissive. This points to the amygdala as a critical player in aggressive and violent behavior.

New Frontiers and Unanswered Questions in the Study of Motivation

  Basal forebrain involvement in Motivation: a promising area for Study The basal forebrain is a potential topic for future Study because of its role in learning and memory. Studying this factor's influence on Motivation might light up fundamental questions about cognition and behavior. The basal forebrain plays a role in sleep, waking, attention, and different states of consciousness. A Look into the Future of Brain Stimulation and Its Effect on Motivation The potential of brain stimulation methods like transcranial magnetic stimulation to increase Motivation is being investigated. Preliminary studies indicate that activating specific brain regions might boost Motivation and performance. A lack of Motivation typically characterizes depression and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Therefore, this might lead to novel therapies for both disorders.

Using Your Brain to Its Full Potential Through Inspiration

Using Your Brain To Its Full Potential Through Inspiration Cognitive Improvement: Fueling Your Brain with Inspiration Increase your brain's Motivation by engaging in cognitive improvement practices like brain training activities and mindfulness meditation. Motivated individuals may benefit from these methods because they enhance the brain circuits responsible for Motivation. For instance, brain training activities help you improve your memory and problem-solving abilities, simplifying planning and accomplishing your objectives. In contrast, mindfulness meditation can help you focus on your goals by lowering stress and worry. Motivation Improvement Through Mental Exercise

Motivation Improvement Through Mental Exercise Puzzles, memory games, and other forms of mental exercise have been shown to boost Motivation and cognitive performance. These mental workouts help strengthen brain areas responsible for processing Motivation and reward. Doing these things will improve your brain's Motivation and help you reach your objectives.

An Intricate Tango Between the Brain and Motivation

  Summary: The Brain's Hidden Role in Optimal Motivation

The brain's part in Motivation involves complex structures, chemicals, and neuronal connections. Each region of the brain, from the primitive brain to the more evolved prefrontal cortex, is essential in determining our choices and actions. Learning about these processes may help you get insight into your motivations and use your brain more effectively to accomplish your objectives.

Exploring the Path Forward in Our Knowledge of What Drives People

We set out on a path of research and invention as we strive to decipher the secrets of the brain and Motivation. Discoveries, enhanced therapies, and a better knowledge of the human brain are all in store for motivational research in the years to come. The Study of Motivation is an academic exercise and a personal search for insight. Read the full article

[leebird-simmer]

Psychopathology, Ch 2 pt. 1

Identify the major parts of the neuron, the nervous system, and the cerebral cortex. Describe their functions.

Neurons: nerve cells.

Dendrites: the rootlike structures at the ends of neurons that receive nerve impulses from other neurons.

Axon: the long, thin part of a neuron along which nerve impulses travel.

Terminals: the small branching structures at the tips of axons.

Myelin sheath: the insulating layer or protective coating of the axon that helps speed transmission of nerve impulses.

Neurotransmitters: chemical substances that transmit messages from one neuron to another.

Synapse: the junction between one neuron and another through which nerve impulses pass.

Receptor site: a part of a dendrite on a receiving neuron that is structured to receive a neurotransmitter.

Central nervous system: the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system: the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

Medulla: an area of the hindbrain involved in regulation of heartbeat, respiration, and blood pressure.

Pons: a structure in the hindbrain involved in body movements, attention, sleep, and respiration.

Cerebellum: a structure in the hindbrain involved in coordination and balance.

Reticular activating system (RAS): brain structure involved in processes of attention, sleep, and arousal.

Thalamus: a structure in the forebrain involved in relaying sensory information to the cortex and in regulating sleep and attention.

Hypothalamus: a structure in the forebrain involved in regulating body temperature, emotion, and motivation.

Limbic system: a group of forebrain structures involved in emotional processing, memory, and basic drives such as hunger, thirst, and aggression.

Basal ganglia: an assemblage of neurons at the base of the forebrain involved in regulating postural movements and coordination.

Cerebrum: the large mass of the forebrain, consisting of the two cerebral hemispheres.

Cerebral cortex: the wrinkled surface area of the cerebrum responsible for processing sensory stimuli and controlling higher mental functions such as thinking and use of language.

Somatic nervous system: the division of the peripheral nervous system that relays information from the sense organs to the brain and transmits messages from the brain to the skeletal muscles.

Autonomic nervous system (ANS): the division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates the activities of the glands and involuntary functions.

Sympathetic nervous system: the division of the autonomic nervous system whose activity leads to heightened states of arousal.

Parasympathetic nervous system: the division of the autonomic nervous system whose activity reduces states of arousal and regulates bodily processes that replenish energy reserves.

Epigenetics: the study of heritable changes in processes affecting gene expression that occur without changes in the DNA itself, the chemical material that houses the genetic code.

Things to Remember in the “Nature vs. Nurture” Debate

Genes do not dictate behavioral outcomes.

Genetic factors create a predisposition or likelihood - not a certainty - that certain behaviors or disorders will develop.

Multigenic determinism affects psychological disorders. Scientists have yet to find ANY psychological disorder that can be explained by defects or variations of a single gene.

Genetic factors and environmental influence interact with each other in shaping our personalities and determining our vulnerability to a range of psychological disorders.

[workscounselingcenter]

Tangled in Tingles: The effect of ASMR on Mental Health

If you’re reading this, you have likely heard of something called the Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR). Colloquially known as ‘Brain Massage’ or ‘Tingles’ ; ASMR refers to the sensation that originates in the scalp, neck, and shoulders in response to visual or auditory stimuli. Many people experience the ‘classic’ tingles in the form of a pleasant prickling sensation down the head, neck, and shoulders. Others feel more of a ‘fog’ sensation that rolls down their entire bodies. While still others feel nothing at all! Crazy cool how people can experience the same phenomenon in different ways right?

So what makes this somatic experience so unique to everyone? How does it aid in anxiety relief?

Well first- let’s discuss what ‘tingles’ actually are.

ASMR is a fairly new and abstract phenomenon that is being studied. It is currently being related to the phenomenon of frisson, or musical chills, since both are characteristically described as a ‘tingling’ sensation that is induced through stimuli deemed pleasant by the perceiver. MRI research has shown that multiple brain areas are activated during frisson like nucleus accumbens, the basal forebrain, and insular cortices. That’s some big vocabulary there! What is important to take away here is that ASMR utilizes all of these areas to provide a dopamine pathway to the limbic system that induces relaxation which can aid in sleep. What makes ASMR interesting is the sheer variety in how people experience it. Some experience a dynamic that rapidly spreads through the whole body and originates in various parts of the body, while others experience sensations that start in the top of the scalp and radiate downward. The perceived differences in experiences may possibly be explained by medial prefrontal cortex activity, which is heightened for some during frisson. Meaning how your nervous system reacts to stimuli is conditioned by your environment.

TLDR: ASMR is the nervous system directly responding to visual and auditory stimuli, but the experiences are different for everyone based on their own life experiences to various stimuli.

Can we skip to the good part? The effect of ASMR on Mental Health!

ASMR can be defined as a mindfulness tool, which in therapy is able to help empower and provide feelings of action for clients towards uncertainties such as anxiety and depression. ASMR utilization allows for a sensory experience that disrupts the nervous system and provides feelings of primal comfort.

From a wider perspective actions that are portrayed in ASMR videos are often considered primal emotional expressions that stimulate feelings of belonging within a ‘pack’. Things like grooming, whispering, tapping, and watching another person complete something carefully are social or intimate activities that promote bonding and feelings of safety.

So, How does one do ASMR?

Very simply, you just do it! There are millions of stimuli and applications for comfort or the pursuit of these tingles are really endless, find what works for you! There are many different apps available for mobile and pc devices, but the most accessible is definitely Youtube. Look for something that seems interesting to you and try it out. I personally enjoy videos that read and follow the words across the page, or videos ofintricate miniature builds that people perform. I don’t experience the tingle sensation, but I do get intense relaxation and feelings of calm.

Please get in touch. We will be happy to discuss how I may be able to help.

[neuro-ang]

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease significantly impacting cognitive function; the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s is complex and is due to the interplay of genetic, biochemical, and inflammatory factors. Afflicted individuals typically exhibit severe memory loss, confusion, difficulty with problem-solving and language, and disorientation. The excessive accumulation of β-amyloid proteins is caused by mutations in genes such as amyloid precursor protein (APP), presenilin 1 (PS-1), and presenilin 2 (PS-2)– which cause glial damage and amyloid plaques. Plaques are significant for being pathological markers of disease,

Amyloid plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, and significant neuronal loss are the three features that signify Alzheimer’s presence. The tau protein, known for forming a structure of the microtubule, maintains the health of neurons; in Alzheimer’s, tau is phosphorylated abnormally, causing microtubule structures to collapse. Without any structural integrity, no neurotransmitter pathway can work properly. This degeneration of neural systems affects the cholinergic system, which is linked to memory and learning systems– more specifically, the basal forebrain which is a contributor to the cognitive critical area. 

Cholinergic systems are significant for modulating the brain’s processing of information, acetylcholine facilitates synaptic plasticity, which measures the ability for the brain to adapt to new information. In Alzheimer’s specifically, there is a deficiency of cholinergic neurons, resulting in the deterioration of cognitive function.

The monoaminergic system, consisting of monoamines such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, plays an important role in neurological behavior, and the degradation of any of these, contribute to the significant degradation of the disease. To begin with, the serotonergic system, involved in mood regulation, cognitive function, and sleep, interact with amyloidogenic processes, which play a major role in behavior, along with depression symptoms. Serotonergic neurons are typically found in the raphe nuclei in the brainstem. Next, dopaminergic neurons, located mostly in the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area, mostly affect motor function and motivation– affecting one’s cognitive control, degenerated dopaminergic neurons will affect one’s physical function and influence the spread of neurofibrillary tangles (tau protein instability.) Lastly, norepinephrine is critical for stress responses and arousal. Located primarily in the locus coeruleus, noradrenergic neurons can affect energy levels, and normal anti-inflammatory properties; if this system is damaged, the disease process may be accelerated. 

The recognition of the cholinergic, serotonergic, dopaminergic, and noradrenergic neurons in Alzheimer’s pathophysiology can lead to drugs to help treat the degenerative disease. To begin with, using cholinesterase inhibitors can inhibit the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine, in order to protect its degradation and increase its availability in the brain. Increasing cholinergic function can slow down the progression of cognitive decline and foster temporary mitigation of symptoms. Next, focusing on the monoaminergic systems, one can improve quality of life through the focus of mood regulation and stability. Currently, serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs and SNRIs) are used to assist with mood and depressive symptoms. SSRIs work through the natural releasing of serotonin into the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft. Once neurotransmission occurs, serotonin binds to specific receptors that allow for cellular responses to influence mood, SSRIs block the natural reuptake of serotonin by blocking the serotonin transporters; by preventing the reuptake of serotonin, more serotonin is left in the synaptic cleft, causing an enhanced and prolonged effect of improved mood. SNRIs are similar, in that they influence both serotonin and norepinephrine. Enhanced levels of neurotransmission help alleviate symptoms of depression, which is incredibly important to manage the symptoms of Alzheimer’s and slow down degeneration.  Lastly, using dopaminergic agonists and antagonists, drugs can mimic dopamine by binding to receptors (agonists), or they can block dopamine receptors (antagonists) in order to treat comorbid conditions. 

The cholinergic and monoaminergic systems both play key roles in the degradation of cognitive function seen in Alzheimer’s. Alzheimer’s disease affects multiple neural pathways and it is important to understand the interplay between systems and markers of disease.

[jhavelikes]

Molecular diversity of microglia, the resident immune cells in the CNS, is reported. Whether microglial subsets characterized by the expression of specific proteins constitute subtypes with distinct functions has not been fully elucidated. Here we describe a microglial subtype expressing the enzyme arginase-1 (ARG1; that is, ARG1+ microglia) that is found predominantly in the basal forebrain and ventral striatum during early postnatal mouse development. ARG1+ microglia are enriched in phagocytic inclusions and exhibit a distinct molecular signature, including upregulation of genes such as Apoe, Clec7a, Igf1, Lgals3 and Mgl2, compared to ARG1– microglia. Microglial-specific knockdown of Arg1 results in deficient cholinergic innervation and impaired dendritic spine maturation in the hippocampus where cholinergic neurons project, which in turn results in impaired long-term potentiation and cognitive behavioral deficiencies in female mice. Our results expand on microglia diversity and provide insights into microglia subtype-specific functions.

ARG1-expressing microglia show a distinct molecular signature and modulate postnatal development and function of the mouse brain | Nature Neuroscience

[emriley2015]

Caffeine Effects On The Brain

Have you ever thought about what caffeine does to your body? Well, I have and I did some research on it. Some might think it is just a cup of coffee or a can of energy drink but there is so much more to it than that. You might feel good at first but eventually, you might feel a lang in energy. That is from the caffeine's blockade of your adenosine receptors and increase of the autonomic nervous system (Gonzaga). Adenosine is said to act as a homeostatic regulator of sleep and helps regulate when a person is awake or asleep (National Institute of Health). Adenosine is found in ATP. ATP is the source of energy for use and storage at a cellular level (Biology). The structure of ATP is a nucleotide triphosphate, consisting of a nitrogen base (adenine), ribose sugar, and three serially bonded phosphate groups (Biology). An increase in adenosine increases a person's need for sleep. There are many parts of the brain that are involved for sleep such as the hypothalamus, brainstem, thalamus, cerebral cortex, pineal gland, basal forebrain, midbrain, and amygdala (National Institute of Health). Some signs or symptoms of too much caffeine include a rise in body temperature, rapid heartbeat, and frequent urination which leads to dehydration, restlessness, anxiety, or shaky hands (Mayo Clinic). If caffeine intake is done in moderation then it can have good health effects. Such good health effects like one could live longer, your body may process glucose better, and a lesser chance of developing Parkinson's disease, it might also help keep the chances of colon cancer down (John Hopkins). Caffeine also can affect multiple systems of the body. The renal system, cardiovascular system, limbic system, and gastrointestinal system just to name a few (Leonard). Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant. Other central system stimulants are used to treat ADD, narcolepsy, and excessive sleepiness. Some central nervous system stimulants are illegal due to people misusing them such as cocaine and ecstasy (Livertox) Located in the limbic system is the hippocampus. The hippocampus manages the function of feeling and reacting. Other known as the "fight or flight" response. The hippocampus also helps process and retrieve declarative memories and spatial relationships. Short-term memories are converted into long-term memories in the hippocampus. (MedicalNews Today)Caffeine affects everyone differently. The amount of caffeine also contributes to its lasting effects.

Gonzaga, L.A., Vanderlei, L.C.M., Gomes, R.L. et al. Caffeine affects autonomic control of heart rate and blood pressure recovery after aerobic exercise in young adults: a crossover study. Sci Rep 7, 14091 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14540-4

Johns Hopkins Medicine. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/9-reasons-why-the-right-amount-of-coffee-is-good-for-you

Leonard TK, Watson RR, Mohs ME. The effects of caffeine on various body systems: a review. J Am Diet Assoc. 1987 Aug;87(8):1048-53. PMID: 3301987.

LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury [Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; 2012-. Central Nervous System (CNS) Stimulants. [Updated 2021 Aug 12]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK548702/

Mayo Clinic Staff.  https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/caffeine/art-20045678 March 19, 2022.

MedicalNewsToday. What is the Hippocampus. Medically reviewed by Nancy Hammond, M.D. — By Rachael Ajmera, MS, RD — Updated on February 17, 2023 https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/313295

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. Brain Basics: Understanding Sleep. https://www.ninds.nih.gov/health-information/public-education/brain-basics/brain-basics-understanding-sleep#:~:text=The%20brain%20stem%2C%20at%20the,%2C%20medulla%2C%20and%20midbrain.)

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Can THC Oil Make You Tired? Complete Guide

Have you at any point had THC oil and felt tired or like you were unable to keep your eyes open? On the off chance that indeed, you are not alone. Numerous clients have seen that consuming THC oil has caused to feel tired. Tiredness is portrayed as wanting to rest or experiencing difficulty keeping up with your concentration. In clinical phrasing, sluggishness is regularly viewed as unreasonable daytime drowsiness or exhaustion. Moreover, utilizing THC oil to feel sluggish and nod off during the day can be worthwhile in certain circumstances, (for example, for individuals who work the night shift). Nonetheless, a many individuals use THC oil to hone their concentration and imagination or to expand their craving since they would rather not nod off in that frame of mind of a dinner or an inventive movement. How might you decrease pot's sluggishness? Keep on perusing this blog to know more.

For what reason does THC oil cause lethargy?

Maryjane makes you tired as a result of the manner in which the substance intensifies in the pot plant influence you. The circadian rhythms and the rest wake cycle are directed by the endocannabinoid framework (ECS). Visit Here to Know more about THC Buy India

Weed has been shown to influence the rest wake cycle, support melatonin creation, and "repress the excitement framework by enacting CB1 receptors in the basal forebrain and other wake-advancing regions," as per studies.

Certain terpenes, as myrcene, may have narcotic qualities and add to marijuana's rest advancing advantages, while cannabinoids like THC are reliably and deeply grounded in assisting you with prompting rest or help you nod off.

How to not feel tired by any stretch of the imagination with THC oil?

There are a couple of ways you could attempt:

You could have a go at utilizing THC oil prior in the day or even in the first part of the day on the off chance that you've attempted the overall counsel and are as yet feeling sluggish even with your negligible viable sum. Pot experts guarantee that utilizing THC oil at different times can make different various impacts.

You could likewise think about consolidating CBD and THC. Likewise, CBD fundamentally mitigates the euphoric impacts of THC, so you could have less articulated narcotic impacts than you would ordinarily.

On the off chance that you are not delicate to caffeine, you can take a stab at consuming dim chocolate or caffeine along with THC to check whether that assists with any weakness or tiredness.

Click Here to - Buy THC Oil Online India

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Serum unsaturated phosphatidylcholines predict longitudinal basal forebrain degeneration in Alzheimer's disease

http://dlvr.it/Smqfbz

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Interesting Papers for Week 25, 2024

Silencing CA1 pyramidal cells output reveals the role of feedback inhibition in hippocampal oscillations. Adaikkan, C., Joseph, J., Foustoukos, G., Wang, J., Polygalov, D., Boehringer, R., … McHugh, T. J. (2024). Nature Communications, 15, 2190.

A multi-demand operating system underlying diverse cognitive tasks. Cai, W., Taghia, J., & Menon, V. (2024). Nature Communications, 15, 2185.

A view-based decision mechanism for rewards in the primate amygdala. Grabenhorst, F., Ponce-Alvarez, A., Battaglia-Mayer, A., Deco, G., & Schultz, W. (2023). Neuron, 111(23), 3871-3884.e14.

Local and global predictors of synapse elimination during motor learning. Hedrick, N. G., Wright, W. J., & Komiyama, T. (2024). Science Advances, 10(11).

Laminar evoked responses in mouse somatosensory cortex suggest a special role for deep layers in cortical complexity. Hönigsperger, C., Storm, J. F., & Arena, A. (2024). European Journal of Neuroscience, 59(5), 752–770.

Synaptic wiring motifs in posterior parietal cortex support decision-making. Kuan, A. T., Bondanelli, G., Driscoll, L. N., Han, J., Kim, M., Hildebrand, D. G. C., … Lee, W.-C. A. (2024). Nature, 627(8003), 367–373.

Organization of reward and movement signals in the basal ganglia and cerebellum. Larry, N., Zur, G., & Joshua, M. (2024). Nature Communications, 15, 2119.

Autokinesis Reveals a Threshold for Perception of Visual Motion. Liu, Y., Tian, J., Martin-Gomez, A., Arshad, Q., Armand, M., & Kheradmand, A. (2024). Neuroscience, 543, 101–107.

Temporally organized representations of reward and risk in the human brain. Man, V., Cockburn, J., Flouty, O., Gander, P. E., Sawada, M., Kovach, C. K., … O’Doherty, J. P. (2024). Nature Communications, 15, 2162.

Neural timescales reflect behavioral demands in freely moving rhesus macaques. Manea, A. M. G., Maisson, D. J.-N., Voloh, B., Zilverstand, A., Hayden, B., & Zimmermann, J. (2024). Nature Communications, 15, 2151.

Changes in spatial self-consciousness elicit grid cell–like representation in the entorhinal cortex. Moon, H.-J., Albert, L., De Falco, E., Tasu, C., Gauthier, B., Park, H.-D., & Blanke, O. (2024). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 121(12), e2315758121.

Goal-seeking compresses neural codes for space in the human hippocampus and orbitofrontal cortex. Muhle-Karbe, P. S., Sheahan, H., Pezzulo, G., Spiers, H. J., Chien, S., Schuck, N. W., & Summerfield, C. (2023). Neuron, 111(23), 3885-3899.e6.

A persistent prefrontal reference frame across time and task rules. Muysers, H., Chen, H.-L., Hahn, J., Folschweiller, S., Sigurdsson, T., Sauer, J.-F., & Bartos, M. (2024). Nature Communications, 15, 2115.

Interactions between circuit architecture and plasticity in a closed-loop cerebellar system. Payne, H. L., Raymond, J. L., & Goldman, M. S. (2024). eLife, 13, e84770.

Functionally refined encoding of threat memory by distinct populations of basal forebrain cholinergic projection neurons. Rajebhosale, P., Ananth, M. R., Kim, R., Crouse, R., Jiang, L., López-Hernández, G., … Talmage, D. A. (2024). eLife, 13, e86581.

Functional architecture of dopamine neurons driving fear extinction learning. Salinas-Hernández, X. I., Zafiri, D., Sigurdsson, T., & Duvarci, S. (2023). Neuron, 111(23), 3854-3870.e5.

Neural attentional filters and behavioural outcome follow independent individual trajectories over the adult lifespan. Tune, S., & Obleser, J. (2024). eLife, 12, e92079.3.

Coordinated head direction representations in mouse anterodorsal thalamic nucleus and retrosplenial cortex. van der Goes, M.-S. H., Voigts, J., Newman, J. P., Toloza, E. H., Brown, N. J., Murugan, P., & Harnett, M. T. (2024). eLife, 13, e82952.

Specific rules for time and space of multisensory plasticity in the superior colliculus. Wang, L., Xin, H., Buren, Q., Zhang, Y., Han, Y., Ouyang, B., … Dong, C. (2024). Brain Research, 1828, 148774.

Structural constraints on the emergence of oscillations in multi-population neural networks. Zang, J., Liu, S., Helson, P., & Kumar, A. (2024). eLife, 12, e88777.3.

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Principles & Methods Of Radial Arm Maze, Y Maze & Plethysmometer

Radial Arm Maze :

The Radial Arm Maze was designed by Olton and Samuelson in 1976 to measure spatial learning and memory in rats.

A behavioral test called the radial arm maze (RAM) is used to measure the spatial learning and memory of small animals like rats and mice. The RAM is often composed of acrylic material and has a central platform with many arms spreading out from it.

The animal is normally placed on the central platform and allowed to explore the maze during the test. After tracking the animal's movements, various metrics, including the number of arm entries, the amount of time spent in each arm, and the number of mistakes made, can be used to gauge the animal's capacity for spatial learning and memory. By relocating the reward in the arms, the test can also be used to gauge working memory.

Radial arm maze method -

Rodents (mice or rats) are placed in the center compartment and allowed to explore the arms in search of this reward. Throughout an experiment, the animal must remember which arms have been visited in order to ensure that they do not repeatedly enter arms which do not contain a food reward.

The animal must remember the decisions they have already made because the maze's architecture mandates that they return to the center between each arm visit and are consequently given the same 8 possibilities every time. In this way, the radial arm maze measures two forms of memory known as “reference memory” and “working memory.

   Y Maze :

Y Maze Spontaneous Alternation is a behavioral test for measuring the willingness of rodents to explore new environments.

The Y maze is frequently used in preclinical research to evaluate behavioral tasks for examining spatial learning and memory. Spontaneous alternation testing and recognition memory tests are two examples of Y maze tests in use. It has been demonstrated that these tests are sensitive to amnestic medications, gene modifications, and hippocampus injury. These Y maze paradigms are used by Creative Biolabs to test memory function in mice or assess the impact of novel medications on cognition.

Y Maze Spontaneous Alternation Test -

Y Maze Spontaneous Alternation is a behavioral test for measuring the willingness of rodents to explore new environments. Most of the time, rodents will rather explore a new arm of the maze than go back to one they have already explored. The hippocampus, septum, basal forebrain, and prefrontal cortex are only a few of the regions of the brain that are engaged in this job.

Testing takes place in a Y-shaped maze with three arms made of white, opaque plastic that are 120 degrees apart from one another. The animal is given access to the three arms of the maze after being shown the center of the maze. Throughout multiple arm entries, the subject should show a tendency to enter a less recently visited arm.

The number of arm entries and the number of triads are recorded to calculate the percentage of an alternation. An entry occurs when all four limbs are within the arm. This test is used to quantify cognitive deficits in transgenic strains of mice and evaluate novel chemical entities for their effects on cognition.

 Plethysmometer :

A Plethysmometer is a valuable piece of equipment used to measure the effectiveness of anti-inflammatory agents that are experimentally induced in rodents. It can also be used to test agents designed to reduce endemic conditions.

The Digital Plethysmometer is a valuable tool for detecting inflammation by tracking changes in tiny paw volume. When a rat or mouse paw is inserted into the apparatus, it monitors minute volume changes brought on by water displacement.

Principle of digital plethysmometer -

The Plethysmometer Control Unit detects the conductance changes and generates an output signal to the digital display indicating the volume displacement measured. The current value remains in the digital display until a new trial starts.

The Plethysmometer (Paw Edema) test serves to measure the effectiveness of anti-inflammatory agents to reduce edemic conditions. In use, the paw is inserted into water, contained in a special water cell of which the resistance is changed due to the immersion of the animal's paw.

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In psychology, confabulation is a memory error defined as the production of fabricated, distorted, or misinterpreted memories about oneself or the world. It is generally associated with certain types of brain damage (especially aneurysm in the anterior communicating artery) or a specific subset of dementias.[1] While still an area of ongoing research, the basal forebrain is implicated in the phenomenon of confabulation. People who confabulate present with incorrect memories ranging from subtle inaccuracies to surreal fabrications, and may include confusion or distortion in the temporal framing (timing, sequence or duration) of memories.[2] In general, they are very confident about their recollections, even when challenged with contradictory evidence.

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2-Minute Neuroscience: Acetylcholine

Neuroscientifically Challenged 417K subscribers 334,683 views Mar 3, 2018 2-Minute Neuroscience In this video I discuss acetylcholine, the first neurotransmitter ever discovered. The topics I cover include the locations of acetylcholine neurons in the brain, acetylcholine receptors, and some of the functions of acetylcholine.

TRANSCRIPT:

Welcome to 2 minute neuroscience, where I explain neuroscience topics in 2 minutes or less. In this installment I will discuss acetylcholine.

Acetylcholine was the first neurotransmitter discovered, and is named for the two substances used to synthesize it: the nutrient choline and the enzyme acetyl coenzyme A.

Neurons that contain acetylcholine are called cholinergic. There are several clusters of cholinergic neurons throughout the brain. Some are found in the basal forebrain; they include the medial septal nucleus, the nucleus of the diagonal band, and the nucleus basalis. Others are found in the brainstem, including the pedunculopontine nucleus and laterodorsal tegmental nucleus.

Acetylcholine acts on two families of receptors, and each receptor family has several subtypes. One family is ionotropic; they are called nicotinic acetylcholine receptors because nicotine also binds to and activates the receptors. Their activation generally results in excitation of the neuron. Another family is metabotropic. These are called muscarinic acetylcholine receptors because a substance called muscarine binds to them; their effects depend on the subtype of the receptor.

The action of acetylcholine in the synapse is terminated by an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase, which breaks acetylcholine down into acetate and choline. The choline is then transported back into neurons to synthesize more acetylcholine.

Acetylcholine has a variety of functions in the nervous system. It is the main neurotransmitter used at neuromuscular junctions, and is responsible for muscle contraction. It is also widely used in the autonomic nervous system. Its functions in the brain are still not fully understood, but it does appear to play important roles in memory, arousal, and attention.

REFERENCES:

Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM 2000. Principles of Neural Science. 5th ed. New York. McGraw-Hill; 2013.

Purves D, Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D, Hall WC, Lamantia AS, McNamara JO, White LE. Neuroscience. 4th ed. Sunderland, MA. Sinauer Associates; 2008.