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“IMPACTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES TO BIODIVERSITY” by Ma. Venice B. Lim

Biodiversity is like a huge ball formed from very different things that are glued together. The term “Biodiversity” is can be described using the two words “Biological” and “Diversity” or simply as “Biological Diversity.” It is defined as the variation or diversity of life of all the plants and animals found on Earth. All species, whether they are small or big, have unique genetic information, live in very different habitats, have various forms or have differences in the ecosystems that they form. It also includes various forms of life whether they are domesticated or are from the wild. This “Biodiversity” is often linked to the species or variation of species. A “species” is a group of living organisms that can interbreed.  Biodiversity is explored at three levels – “genetic diversity” that refers to the variation of genes contained in plants, animals, fungi, and other forms of life; “species diversity” which is the diversity between species and between “ecosystem diversity” which refers to the different habitats that these various forms of life are residing.

Biodiversity is an important factor for the benefit of the people and a key to having an effective ecosystem. It provides a wide selection of foods to not only humans but also other forms of life. A lot of breakthroughs in the medical field today were from the various researches performed on various parts of species of plants and animals that exhibit a potential or a property that can be beneficial in developing cures for various diseases. It allows ecosystems to regulate disturbances like extreme fires and floods and help the species of plants and animals from other ecosystems to adapt to the changes in their environment.

Extinction of some species of plants and animals has become evident throughout the years. These extinctions were either caused by a natural phenomenon or by disturbances made in the ecosystems of these forms of life. A major contributor to the declining population of some species of plants and animals are the different human activities. As years have passed by, humans were able to develop things and improve their life conditions through the usage of some species of plants for medicinal purposes and some animals for food. These human activities have posed a great threat to the number of plants and animals present here on Earth and these include Agriculture, Fishing, Technology, Businesses, and many more and they can directly or indirectly have an effect to the species residing in a particular environment or ecosystem such as habitat loss, overexploitation, and pollution. and according to the National Wildlife Federation and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), a total of about one third of all known species on Earth was susceptible to extinction.

Habitat Loss

A lot of ecosystems, especially the forests and grasslands, were converted to residential areas and agricultural lands. A decline in the population of some of the species present in the ecosystem were a result from these human activities that lead to the deaths or migration of some species due to the unavailability of a habitat for the species to stay and the unavailability of enough food resources that cannot accommodate the increasing demand of the forms of life present in the damaged ecosystems.

Overexploitation

A diminishing population of some species of plants and animals may be a result of overexploitation of humans because of having competitions between businesses to maximize profits. The presence of a competition encourages businesses to develop various methods of extraction to perform better and exceed expectations from their peers and from the people that benefit from their exploitations.

Pollution

Ecosystems that can be found in land and in water are also experiencing the effects of various human activities. These human activities result to the presence of toxic discharges, bacterial contamination, and many more. A lot of factories or other buildings dump their wastes, some of these are harmful chemicals, near bodies of water or to some landfills and this leads to the increase of unwanted substances present in the land and water ecosystems that can impact the living organisms present in these ecosystems by killing them or affecting their ability to carry out their biological functions. 

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“Interaction with the Gentle Giants in Oslob: Yay or Nay?” by Rose Kesha Louesse Vergara

Rhincodon typus or whale sharks, also known as butanding in local term, have been a popular tourists’ attraction of Oslob. Oslob is a town located south of Cebu consisting of 21 barangays including barangay Tan-awan where the whale shark watching is currently located.

It all started when a fisherman led a group of tourists to a spot where the whale sharks were. Soon, tourists, foreign or local, started visiting Oslob to experience the same personal interaction with the whale shark. Prior to this, the fishermen have observed that their fish catch started declining and discovered that there whale sharks “chasing away” the fishes. In order to drive away the whale sharks from their fishing nets, they feed them uyap or tiny shrimp which the whale sharks chase and eat.

Different sectors of people have different opinions towards the whale shark ecotourism of Oslob. Each of these sectors has their pros and cons towards this newly-found attraction. Some say that the whale shark ecotourism in Oslob is a bad thing for the long term effects to the animals while some say it’s a positive thing that aims whale shark protection and conservation

For economists and the residents of barangay Tan-awan, whale shark watching has been a new source of income, making them earn a lot more than what they usually earn from fishing. It created different new job opportunities, infrastructures and services, boosting the local economy. In contrast, some economists say that people might only depend on the temporary income source. It may be a much larger amount of money for them but for how long will it lasts?

On the other hand, conservationists, researchers and environmentalists have different views on this matter. Listed as an endangered species under IUCN red list, different laws are passed and implemented to save these gentle giants, including Ordinance O91-S12 which was issued by the municipality of Oslob in connection to the rising popularity of Oslob Whale Shark Watching.

Environmentalists and conservationists are highly against with this act of interaction with the whale shark. Feeding and petting of these whale sharks alter their behaviour such as avoidance and immediate dive behaviour. According to these researchers, unlike the whale sharks in Oslob, whale sharks in Donsol, Sorsogon and Southern Leyte tend to get disturbed easily and do not even show themselves the whole year.

Hand feeding the whale sharks by fishermen on boats, gives the animal an idea that boats and human mean food. The whale sharks may nudge boats, “begging” for food. In other parts of the Philippines, this behaviour might get mistaken as aggression to other fishermen and might lead them to hurt these animals as form of self-defence or worse, kill them for food. It also hinders the whale sharks to perform their roles in the deeper water ecosystem and might disturb not only the whale sharks only but the whole ecosystem as well.

According to Darren Whitehead, a researcher from the United Kingdom, the whale shark feeding in the area is a “potential time bomb ready to explode”. In addition, the fishermen appear to be too oblivious on the long term effects of their actions.  

Some see this as a positive thing as it serves as an act of conservation. Disrupting the natural migration pattern, these whale sharks are protected from Chinese poachers that target them for their fins during their migration.

In conclusion, whale shark watching in Oslob might pose a threat to these animals despite the aim of conservation through ecotourism. It may also aid the continuous declining of their numbers in the wild. But what’s important is that we should see to it that we appreciate and protect their existence without further harming them but at the same time making sure that their wild nature is still intact.

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“The Disposal Mishap: Throwing Plastic Refuse to the Ocean and the Negative Repercussions They Provide to the Large Filter-Feeders Residing in the Marine Biome” by Jann Michael R. Olarita

Chapter I. The Waste Disposal Dilemma

Waste is a growing problem in the world. As the world grows, and countries develop, waste is bound to grow along with it as developing countries produce a lot of waste. According to the World Bank’s report entitled: “What a Waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste Management”

The amount of urban waste produced by the world is growing at a rate faster than urbanization. It was also said that by 2025, it is estimated that the number of people living in cities will increase by 1.4 billion, and the daily waste production per person would be 1.42 kg of Municipal Solid Waste, and this is more than double of the current average which is 0. 62 municipal solid waste. Annual worldwide urban waste produced per year is also expected to triple from 0.62 billion tons to 2.2 billion tons. Here below is a map by the World Economic Forum that showed how much Municipal Solid Waste was produced per person per country last 2012 (since 2012 was the last time when data was available).

                             Figure 1. 2012 Waste Map by the WEF

Chapter II. Ocean Contamination

Trash has been thrown into the waters, be it seas, rivers, or oceans, ever since the start of recorded history. Since land was, and still is, a viable resource, people needed a place where they can dispose of their trashes without having to sacrifice land. The people then turned to the ocean, since no human was inhabiting it, and it covered up to 70% of the world. Waste has already reached 5.25 pieces of plastic debris swimming about in the ocean and of that mass, 269, 000 tons float on the surface, while 4 billion plastic microfibers per square meter litter the sea.

Millions of trash flow into the world’s oceans each year, and new studies confirm that most of it comes from Asia. According to an edition of the journal Science, it was estimated that China’s heavily coastal population contributes to 1.3 million to 3.5 million metric tons of plastic to the world’s oceans each year. Also, 8 of the top 10 contributors were countries found in Asia, and this included the Philippines.

These contributors gave an estimated value of 4.8 million to 12.7 million metric tons of plastic to our oceans. The problem this presents however, is how these plastic debris result into harmful effects to the marine ecosystem. These large plastics can be ingested by sea organisms such as fishes, and other larger sea organisms, such as whales, manatees, and etc. These plastics then clog the intestines of these organisms and block their digestive systems. These plastics can also entangle smaller sea organisms and suffocate them. When the organisms that ingest them release these plastics through fecal waste, these broken down plastics are now small enough to be ingested by smaller invertebrates and disrupt their ecology.

                                Figure 2. Plastic Debris in Shorelines

                                         Figure 3. Ocean Pollution

                      Figure 4. A Turtle Entangled in Plastic Waste

These photos above show examples of pollution in our oceans. The number of floating plastic debris in our water’s surfaces may disturb the natural feeding systems of the filter feeders in the area that mainly feed in plankton.

Chapter III. The Filter-Feeder and his Meal

Last May 11, 2017 a massive “dead whale” made out of plastic debris was found in Naic, Cavite of the Philippines. This massive whale was made out of plastic debris found in the oceans of the area. This massive whale became viral in social media because it sparked the controversy of Plastic Waste disposal and improper management in the country.

          Figure 5. The Massive "Dead Whale" Found in the Philippines

According to Greenpeace, more than 30 dead sperm whales were found in the shores of Europe in the first three months of the year 2016. These events sparked up discussion between the people and made them talk about the effects brought to oceanic organisms. Last February 2017, scientists in Norway found a beached whale with at least 30 plastic bags and other plastic waste found in its stomach. The whale was put down when it was realized that it will live no more as it had consumed a large amount of non-biodegradable waste. This was no longer surprising to scientists as the density of plastic wastes in our oceans continues to grow. Also, last 2016, there were a number of sperm whales found in the coast of Germany where a bunch of startling things were found. Some of the things found in their stomachs were Fishing Gear, and Engine Covers. A necropsy was done on the whales that beached themselves and four of them had large amounts of plastic wastes in their stomachs. There was a 13-meter-long shrimp fishing net found in the stomach of one of them, and there also was a plastic car engine cover, and the remains of a plastic bucket.

How these can negatively affect the filter feeders in our oceans are actually astonishing. Filter feeders are organisms that feed on plankton, or anything in the water. They keep gulping the water and filter any of the edible debris floating in the water. The problem presented is since the density of plastics have increased over the years, these filter feeders have now been filtering plastic microfibers into their systems and have been bringing about harmful effects. These plastic can bring toxic effects to the organisms and can kill them. These filter feeders may also choke on the plastic. If these are not changed, then the marine biome is definitely in danger.

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“The Near-Invincibility of the Honey Badger” by Clint Matthew L. Arioja

In the dry and arid terrain of the African savannah, many creatures are continually fighting for dominance and survival. Herbivores like impalas, rhinos, and giraffes roam constantly around the grasslands in search of plants to eat. In addition to having to look for food, they also have to watch out for predators such as lions, cheetahs, and hyenas to avoid being eaten. Not only that, these predators would also often fight with each other while competing for food. In such a dangerous environment, it is expected that all of the animals living in this habitat possesses certain defensive mechanisms to increase their chance of survival. However, out of those numerous creatures, one species stand out. Though at first glance, it may seem harmless, it will eventually become clear that that the honey badger is one of the fiercest animals today.

The honey badger, also known as the ratel, is the only species in the Mellivorinae subfamily and its sole genus Mellivora. Despite of its name, the honey badger has a very different appearance from the other badger species and they bear more anatomical similarities with weasels. Its natural habitats are rainforests and desert outskirts in Africa, Southwest Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. They are still common and are far from being endangered, being considered as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Honey badgers are omnivores, although they mainly prey on small mammals and reptiles and may also occasionally scavenge for food. They usually travel alone though some interactions between them do occur.

Looking at these characteristics, the honey badger may seem somewhat insignificant. However, the honey badger is known as one of the fiercest animals alive today. The Guinness Book of World Records even named it as the most fearless creature in the world. The honey badgers have been known to attack beehives without fear of the bees just get the honey inside. This is how they got the name ‘honey badgers’. They have been also known to fearlessly from predators many times larger than themselves such lions and hyenas. The predators even avoid a direct confrontation with a honey badger if possible because of how difficult they are to fight with. Whatever opponent the honey badger is faced off with, it will not run away and will always choose to fight even porcupines, lions, and leopards. So why is the honey badger feared by the predators? What traits does the honey badger possess that made it so unafraid of anything and made it so hard to kill?

First of the many traits that make the honey badger so diffcicult to kill is because of its skin. The skin of a honey badger is very thick, which is about a fourth of an inch thick, and is also very rubbery. These two things make its skin nearly impervious to damage. The skin of the honey badger is so tough that not even arrows and spears can fully penetrate it. In fact, not even a blow from a sharp machete can be able to completely cut through the skin even if full force is used. Their thick skin is also the reason that they can attack beehives so easily because the skin protects them from being stung by bees’ stingers. This basically means that whatever predators use .in fighting the honey badger, be it claws, talons, or fangs, it would not be enough to damage the honey badger’s skin. Even a sharp machete is ineffective against its skin so what chance do teeth and claws have?

Another thing about the honey badger’s skin Is that its fairly loose. This means that the honey badger can move quite freely within its its skin and is somewhat flexible. This ability is useful especially when a predator has the honey badger grasped between its claws or jaws. To escape the predator, the honey badger can simply squirm and twist in its skin to be able to attack the predator’s face or body, allowing them a chance to escape. It is thought that the only safe way to hold a honey badger is by the back of its neck, away from its claws and teeth.

The next feature that honey badgers have are their teeth and jaws. Honey badgers possess strong jaws and teeth. In fact, a honey badger’s jaw can chomp down with sufficient force to break a turtle’s hard shell. When a honey badger eats its prey, it consumes every part of it, including the bones. This may also be due to their jaws that allow them to break down bones. This also gives them another way to defend themselves.

Another defensive mechanism that they have is their apparent resistance to stings and  venom. It has been observed that the venom of snakes has no major effect on honey badgers. Even when bitten by king cobras and puff adders many times, honey badgers suffer from little to no effect. It has been thought that this resistance is due to their thick skin that protects them. However, even if a bite from a puff adder can penetrate the skin, it would only knock out the honey badger for a couple hours and not kill them. It is unknown what is in their physiology that makes them resistant to deadly venom. For this reason, everytime a snake engages with a honey badger, it is most likely that the snake will die.

Aside from these traits, there is yet another defense mechanism that honey badgers have. They have a reversible anal pouch that can emit a strong stifling odor similar to a skunk’s. This mechanism has proved effective in deterring predators like lions and hyenas.

As these physical traits aren’t enough, the honey badger is also known to be intelligent. The honey badger is one of the few animals that can use tools to catch prey. While most animals can use  objects to climb over obstacles, the honey badger uses these tools utilizing its dexterous hands and according to researchers, using complex thinking and careful calculation not normally found in most animals.

All of these remarkable offensive and defense capabilities all make the honey badger fearless and the prey of only few predators. The ferocity of the honey badgers has convinced most predators think twice before engaging twith them. Most of them just stay away and avoid confrontation with them. Although honey badgers have been known to be killed by lions and leopards, they still prefer to give the honey badgers space. With these traits, it is clear why the honey badger is known as the world’s fearless animal.

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“Ocean Acidification: A Forgotten Crisis” by Bless Cyra O. Bustamante

The ocean is a massive carbon reservoir which is estimated to have absorbed one third of all the CO2 produced by human activities such as burning fossil fuels. Since the mid-1980s, concentrations of CO2 have been tracked and they are said to be increasing in parallel with the growing amount of this gas in the atmosphere. CO2 reacts with seawater to form carbonic acid, but as a weak acid, carbonic acid almost immediately dissociates to form bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ions. The increasing concentration of hydrogen ions makes seawater more acidic. This is called ocean acidification. This phenomenon affects a lot of marine ecosystems around the world, but is often overlooked by most people. Hence, ocean acidification is often dubbed “the other carbon dioxide problem” as well as “climate change's evil twin.”

Most of the biological activity in the oceans take place in the near-surface waters penetrable by the sun; the so-called photic zone. Marine organisms are, by definition, adapted to their environment. However, changes in ocean chemistry such as ocean acidification could have substantial effects on these organisms and their habitats. These include the impact on organisms arising from changes in availability or composition of nutrients as a result of increased acidity. Many marine photosynthetic organisms and animals, such as corals, make shells and plates out of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). This process of ‘calcification’ is important for some marine organisms’ biology and survival. But as the water becomes acidified, calcification is impeded. And this is possibly one of the most serious environmental impacts of ocean acidification.

                                                  A shell dissolves in acidified ocean water.

Any changes in the biological processes in the surface ocean waters will also affect the deeper water of the oceans. This is because organisms and habitats living at the lower levels of the oceans rely mainly on the products created by life in the surface waters, since they cannot be reached by sunlight. On a longer timescale, these organisms may also be vulnerable to acidification and changes in ocean chemistry as higher levels of CO2 mix throughout the oceans.

Aside from the slowing and reversing of calcification, organisms may suffer other adverse effects.

For example, the elevated oceanic levels of CO2 may produce CO2-induced acidification of body fluids, known as hypercapnia.

Also, increasing ocean acidity is believed to reduce metabolic rates in jumbo squid, hamper the immune responses of blue mussels, and make it difficult for juvenile clownfish to tell apart the smells of non-predators and predators, or hear their sounds. This is possibly because ocean acidification may alter the acoustic properties of seawater, allowing sound to propagate further, and increasing ocean noise, which can affect all animals that use sound for echolocation or communication.

Reef fish such as these clownfish behave strangely in highly acidified waters, becoming attracted to a predator while being unable to smell their own parents.

Another possible effect would be an increase in red tide events, which could contribute to the accumulation of toxins in small organisms such as anchovies and shellfish, which increase the occurrence of different types of shellfish poisonings.

Changes in natural resources as a result of ocean acidification could also affect the livelihoods of people who rely on them. An example of this is a decline in commercial fisheries and in the Arctic tourism industry and economy. Commercial fisheries are threatened because acidification harms calcifying organisms which form the base of the Arctic food webs. Arctic food webs are considered simple; there are few steps in the food chain from small organisms to larger predators. For example, pteropods are “a key prey item of a number of higher predators - larger plankton, fish, seabirds, and whales". Both pteropods and sea stars serve as a substantial food source and their removal from the simple food web would pose a serious threat to the whole ecosystem. Thus, the effects on the calcifying organisms at the base of the food webs could potentially destroy fisheries.

The ocean is now nearly 30 percent more acidic than it was at the beginning of the industrial era. Finding a comparable acidification event requires setting our time machine in reverse, going back 55 million years. Ocean acidification is likely the most important environmental issue on the planet today, yet most people have no idea about it.  There are many things we can do on an individual, community or global level that will help reduce the effects of ocean acidification.  First, we can use and create energy more efficiently so there is less CO2 being put into the atmosphere. Second, we can protect marine habitats so that the ocean is more resilient and can bounce back from the damage that has been done. And finally, we can educate people on ocean acidification and its threat to ocean life. All of us, especially environmental organizations, governments, and the media, need to work together in order to address this problem. We don’t need to be scientists to understand that ocean acidification is a global threat that affects not only marine life but everyone else on the planet.

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“The Coral Triangle: The Negligence of a Treasure Cove” by Ella Noelle Prado

Made of more than 7,000 islands, the Philippine archipelago is known for being a traveler’s destination due to its fine beaches. Also, island-related tourist activities such as snorkeling and scuba diving are also popular in visiting the Philippines for the diversity of marine species in the Philippine waters. Examples of these tourist spots are the Tubbataha Reef National Park in Palawan, where atolls incorporate diverse species of marine life; and the Verde Island Passage, which is a 10-mile strait located in the area between Batangas and Mindoro, where a long history of scientists from California Academy of Sciences; among others. With the convergence of nourished waters of the Pacific Ocean, South China Sea, and the Celebes Sea, more than 400 species of corals and 2,000 species of fishes resides in the waters surrounding the Philippines.

Source: http://i.cdn.turner.com/ireport/sm/prod/2012/04/30/WE00751237/2084233/DSC1236jpg-2084233_p9.jpg

The richness of marine biodiversity of the Philippines brought it to be part of the Coral Triangle, which is known as the “global center of marine biodiversity”. This area encompasses the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Timor Leste, and the Solomon Islands. It is where the Pacific and the South China Sea meet together with having the Philippines acting as the border in the north, along with Indonesia and Malaysia, in the west, and the Solomon Islands in the east. The Coral Triangle is the “richest center of marine life and coral diversity”, according to the WWF. Furthermore, The Coral Triangle hosts 76% of all known coral species in the world, 3,000 plus species of fishes, including six out of seven known marine turtles of the world, garnering itself a title of “Underwater Equivalent of the Amazon”. “All of the Philippines is part of the Coral Triangle, the richest shallow water environments in the world, so all of the Philippines, most of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea are the areas that really have this exceptional diversity,” Dr. Terrence, the Dean of Science and Research Collections at the Academy, said in an expedition held at the Verde Island Passage.

Source: http://wwf.panda.org/_core/general.cfc?method=getOriginalImage&uImgID=%26%2AB%24%2B%20%5EK6%0A

This area supports the lives of 120 million people residing in the area, and 2.25 million of them are fishermen who depend on the sea for income. This also includes the farming of pearls, crabs, and seaweeds. Also, the Philippines benefit from its waters since fishing is one of the essential industries of the country. This contributed to 18.5% of the national Gross Value Added in Agriculture. Aside from the country’s archipelagic feature, the country’s people have a liking for fish and seafood, making this industry beneficial to Filipino fishermen. With that, the Philippines have been known to be included in the countries with highest per capita fish consumption in the world. Moreover, the coral reefs in the Coral Triangle aids in protecting the coastlines from erosion, aside from being a valuable source of new pharmaceuticals. However, this global epicenter of marine biodiversity encounters several threats.

Source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_cb-z6rFjLaA/TFbgHqLPTGI/AAAAAAAAAGk/ZPS4JUJoIy4/S380/image006.jpg

In a journal written by Molina, it was stated that the fishermen the writer interviewed noticed some changes in the marine ecosystem, such as the decline of fish catch as time passes by. The fishermen shared their sentiments in the change for when the future generations may catch less and less fish in the future. “And while there’s a lack of written historical data in the Philippines, the fishers themselves are a living source of information about past marine ecosystems,” she writes.

Some of these threats are mainly caused by pollution, erosion, overfishing, and other abusive methods of fishing. These are commonly due to the high human population densities in the area.

Coastal developments brought by the growth of human populations, affect marine ecosystems located in the coastal areas. An example would be the removal of coral reefs and mangroves from the coastal areas in order to pave way for the establishment of tourist attractions, including airports and ports, and then commercializing these areas. Furthermore, the increase in tourist activities commonly occur in areas which are considered “virgin” or untouched, ending up disturbing coastal corals by means of anchoring, and sewage. Also, since the Coral Triangle is located in the Southeast Asian region, “a major hub for shipping traffic”, several threats may be instigated. Some of these are oil spills, pollution from ports and the discharge of ballasts, and improper garbage disposal, which may poison and wreck oceanic ecosystems.

Source: https://www.worldwildlife.org/places/coral-triangle

There are also many forms of destructive fishing which is mainly caused by the pressure from the recent growth of demand for marine resources, which rose along with the increase of population. An example is overfishing, which contributes to the reduction of fishes for more than what coral reefs maintain. Destructive fishing techniques also include poison fishing (cyanide fishing), muro ami, dynamite fishing, etc.

Another threat to the ecosystem would be climate change, which causes the rise of sea levels, along with the rising temperature and acidity of the ocean. This will then result to severe mass coral bleaching and the decline of coral growth rates.

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“Ice-cold food and scorching beverages: Bad for your Health” by Ejiel Kleine Diapana

Agriculture feeds and clothes the world and yet the world constantly affects the process of agriculture, thereby producing a kind of mutual dependence with each other. If there are some factors of the world that would change, agriculture would ultimately be also affected.

The world has been undergoing drastic changes throughout the course of human history. Many of the changes that occurred in the landscape, geography, and climate happened in such a short amount of time. This suggests that many of theses changes were brought upon by human activities and that these are pressing concerns.

One the issues that has been the topic of debate throughout the world is climate change. Many suggests that this climate change is natural,a consequence of a long-term cycle that the Earth must undergo in the span of millions of years. However, current evidence suggests otherwise. Research data has shown that the levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) have increased dramatically within the span of mere centuries, faster than any of the previous recorded rates before the industrial revolution. The CO2 that has been stored in large amounts inside certain natural resources such as fossil fuels, limestone, and the like, have been released because of human activities, thus solidifying the stand that climate change is therefore artificial and must be addressed in order to maintain desirable conditions for agriculture.

The effects of climate change, however, is still largely unknown because it has only been recently identified. Yet scientists can still observe its short-term effects, especially on agriculture. Likewise, scientists can foretell the effects that are possible to occur due to climate change.

Global climate change has been observed to cause altered weather patterns. Such as extreme cold temperatures. Cold weather is considered a hindrance to the type of crops that could be raised in the particular area. This in turn could affect farming practices, as well as pest control. These could exultantly affect the availability and price of agriculture products as well as the costs of doing business. The cold weather can lead to damaged and “stressed” crops and the need to continue to provide supplemental feed to livestock increases significantly. Also, prolonged cold damaged waterlines, and freezing rain and snow in many areas can make it difficult for work fields thereby reducing the overall agricultural production of the place.

Freezes are a threat to many crops, both at the beginning and the end of the growing season. All conditions experienced by a plant affect its health and hardiness. A lack of water can lead to wilting and sometimes death in plants. Excess or lack of nutrients can also contribute to negative plant health, which is more frequent in occurrence within cold temperatures.  Cold can also freeze the cells in a plant, causing damage and interrupting the pathways for nutrients and water to flow.Cold temperature impacts on agriculture are often discussed through frost and freeze impacts. Extreme and prolonged cold can impact livestock not protected from the frigid temperatures. While crops could be impacted by climate change, it is likely that farm animals would be even more susceptible to changes in the climate.

Extreme heat brought by climate change is also a major threat to the agricultural sector. Too hot of a weather can wither the pant, suppressing nutrients from the ground that are commonly carried through liquid medium which are absent after extreme heat vaporized them. Animals are also susceptible to heat strokes, one of the cause of headaches to the poultry sector, for example. In the Philippines itself, extreme hot weather can cause chickens to die or produce less eggs, forcing poultry farms to install fans and even air conditioners in extreme causes in order to keep production at a steady rate.

In conclusion the effects of extreme cold and hot weather on agriculture brings mostly negative results, which are mostly plant destruction and giving stress to livestock. Extreme weather slows the growth of the crops or hinders their nutrient intake and can also give diseases . As for the livestock, cold or hot weather affects them physically and also giving them discomfort. The weather therefore affects the environment greatly, thereby establishing the fact that it is a critical factor on the progress of agriculture and thus we must take action to mitigate climate change, starting with even the most basic unit of society– ourselves.

[biologycore]

“Trees of Life: Human Impacts on the (Cinnamomum cebuense) Cebu Cinnamon Species” by Jeanzel A. Ending

Humans have a major contribution to the environment as one of its key individuals. They participate in the life cycle on Earth. All organisms have a connection to every organism in one way or another. So, one little action may be circulated throughout life cycles, not only for humans, but also for members of the biodiversity like various organisms from bacteria to blue whales, on land, on air, in the waters. Generally, the bodily processes, inter-species and intra-species interaction of the organisms can have externalities. These externalities affect the other organisms and their life cycles, and furthermore the environment.

In a more definite scope, human actions have had a significant effect on the environment. Industrialization and medicine are big factors. Urbanization and exploitation of nature have paved their way through the environment. A specific citation for this is their effects on the Cebu cinnamon (tree) species.

The C. cebuense is an endemic species to Cebu Island in the Philippines. Its relatives, the Cinnamomum camphora, Cinnamomum parthenoxylon and Cinnammum glanduliferum, for example, are used to make camphor and essential oils for the perfume and pharmaceutical industries. Like its relatives, the bark of the C. cebuense is thought to have medicinal properties. Being endemic, these species are best observed and left unharmed in order to conduct more future scientific researches that may help preserve them.

A survey on the population and distribution of the C. cebuense tree was conducted from 2003 to 2006 using purposive search and total population counts in the six largest forests in Cebu. At least two additional sub-populations were found. The study also identified 25+ mature trees from only four mature individuals known in 2003 and to more than 800 individuals from only 49 in 2003 (Orlanes et al., 2008). In 2015, it was also reported that the population of endemic C. cebuense species in the Cebu province was less than 500. Of these, only less than 30 are recorded to produce seedlings since its reproductive maturity begins at the age of 20 years old and flowers only every four years.

Meanwhile, among the factors that influence the changes in the C. cebuense population are urbanization, bark-stripping, and rehabilitation. There are good and bad effects. Some of these cause the population to decline and some aid in the conservation of the species.

First is the influence of urbanization. Projects like housing and commercial buildings have used forest areas to build their causes. However, this has likewise been the cause of declining forest covers that is essential in forest environments. Tree species like the C. cebuense aid forest life so it is a considerable loss when these species are affected. With the growing population, expanding clearing for agricultural development has led to further forest destruction. Forest cover in Cebu is one of the most badly degraded vegetation in the Philippines. This development has put too much endangerment particularly to those species or subspecies of plants and other wildlife in the island.

Second, the C. cebuense species is used by local residents as remedy for stomach ache. The bark is either chewed directly or boiled with of water before drinking. In addition, a recent study by Fierro et al. (2012) showed chromatographic separation of the dichloromethane extract of the bark of C. cebuense gave rise to safrole and eugenol – essentially used in perfumes, medicines, flavorings, and essential oils – identified by Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. In another study by Ragasa et al. (2011), the bark of C. cebuense afforded monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes and phenolics, while the leaves yielded sesquiterpenes and triterpenes. Such are also other essential oils used for health and medicinal purposes. However, the prevalent practice of stripping its bark for medicinal use also poses a threat to its survival, as this may lead to infection or death if the tree is ring-barked. Based on personal communication from the Cebu Biodiversity Conservation Foundation, Incorporated (CBCFI), C. cebuense will only bear fruits once every two years which also contributed much to the problem of conserving and protecting the species.

Last but not the least, tree-planting activities have significantly helped rehabilitate species populations. Groups like the Kapunungan sa Mag-uuma sa Yutang Lasangnon sa Bululacao (KMYLB) monitor the species in their habitat specifically in Nug-as, Alcoy, Cebu. They take charge in taking care of species from wildlings to saplings to mature trees. Due to the sensitivity of the species, some saplings are carefully uprooted and separately nurtured. Some of these said saplings are also provided for tree-planting activities.

Indeed, humans have a considerable impact on the environment. Agricultural encroachment specifically is detrimental to forest trees like the Cebu Cinnamon. However, steps are already being advanced to rehabilitate the loss the humans have done.

[biologycore]

“Road to Extinction: The Endangered Felines Around the World” by Angela Mea Reusora

The rate of the increase of endangered species is said to be higher than the expected natural rate. This is due to several factors such as habitat loss, hunting, disease and climate change which are usually the effects of human activities (WlidScreen Arkive, 2017).

What are Endangered Species?

Endangered species are organisms that their existence is close to extinction. They are the organisms with very small population which, with the smallest threat could lead to their vanishment on Earth. The main reasons of having endangered species are their the loss of genetic variation and loss of habitat. However, the loss of habitat, nowadays, have become the major cause of endangered species (National Geographic,2017).

The loss of habitats can occur naturally and unnaturally- due to human activities. An example of naturally loss of habitat is the incident wherein the extinction of dinosaurs occurred. Due to sudden changes in the environment caused by a meteor shower, dinosaurs cannot adapt to their new environment which lead to their extinct. However, that incident was natural and there was no one responsible, unlike nowadays, human activities caused an immense changes to the environment from land to the oceans.

Changes brought by human civilizations affect the environment and thus its inhabitants. Industrialization brought “concrete jungles” and not jungles with trees. Forests were cleared to build subdivisions and malls. This lead to the endangerment of organisms living in forests. One of these endangered organisms are the felines which include wildcats, and other cats.

Family Felidae

Cats are very diverse all around the world. Cats are under the Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Chordata, Class Mammalia, Order Carnivora, and Family Felidae with 18 known genera and 36 known species (Myers, et al., 2017). This family has 2 subfamilies: Pantherinae and Felinae. Subfamily Pantherinae include lions and tigers while subfamily Felinae includes bobcats, pumas, and cheetas. Family Felidae include domestic cats to wildcats. Domestic cats are the most introduced cats around the world as long there is a household. However, all cats are the same, they share the same characteristics, from physical attributes to behavioral characteristics (Etnyre et al., 2011).

Members of the Felidae family are called felines or felids. These members share the same characteristcs. Felids have retractable claws to prevent claws to become blunt. They are called the most morphologically specialized hunters of all carnivores . They often prey on animals bigger than themselves (Etnyre et al., 2011). However, even with their strong prowess, many members of this family are already some of the endangered species. Some of the causes of them being endangered are: loss of habitat, human conflicts, global warming, and loss of prey.

Due to deforestation, many species of cats lose their habitats. With their loss of habitat, these species are endangered. They do not have places that are suitable for their ways of living thus will lead to their perish.Another cause of their endangerment is that the body parts of cats, especially, big cats, are used as traditional medicine. Many species of cats are endangered due to the so called Wildlife Trade. Wildlife trading threaten the wildcats since their skin are used to produce coats. With this an estimated of 1200 tigers were confiscated over a ten year period which means there are 100 tigers every year. Global warming is also the reason for endangered feline species. Global warming bring loss of habitat to some species of cats such as snow leopards. And lastly, cats are also losing their preys due to many factors: loss of resources, climate change, and human activities. Since humans are utilizing almost all resources and not leaving for the other organisms, these organisms do not have food anymore. And the change of environmental factors cause death to the organisms. These problems lead to the shrinking number of organisms which are the food for cat species. (SEEthe WILD.org, 2016)

Endangered Members of Family Felidae

The members of the Family Felidae may be abundant around the world, however, due to environmental changes and human conflicts, some of them became endangered. “Around the world, the main threats to big cats are endangered from human activities.”- SEEtheWILD.

The same with other endangered species, the loss of habitat is one of the major reasons of feline endangerment. And this loss of habitat is an effect of many human activities. The following are some of the endangered species under the family Felidae. (1) Snow Leopard are one of most beautiful which live in extremely cold habitats of alpine and subalpine areas Central Asia. Due to their habitats, these cats are rarely seen and also, this feline species is already endangered. The estimated population of this endangered species is somewhere between 4,000 and 6,5000 individuals. (2) Fishing cats are water-loving cats. They live along rivers and mangrove swamps in Asia. They fish for food and are skilled swimmers And this species of cats is already listed in the endangered species. (3) Iberian Lynx are critically endangered species of cat and also the world’s most threatened species of cat with only 309 living  in the wild as of 2013. This species of cat is a rabbit-eater thus the loss of rabbits in its habitat cause its endangerment. (4) Flat-headed cat is said to be the least-known feline species. It is one of the smaller species of wild cats living among wetlands.

There are more cat species that are already endangered. The only way humankind can lessen them is to be more aware of the things and harms done to the environment. A little change in the environment can cause an extinction of an organism.

Let’s save cats! Let’s save the environment!

[biologycore]

“Imperil Emperor Axolotl” by Eir-Roumar Lowell Degamo

Considered to be one of the most scientifically studied salamanders, axolotl is a carnivorous amphibian with an average lifespan of ten to fifteen years. The name axolotl (ACK-suh-LAH-tuhl) is derived from two words: atl meaning “water” and xolotl meaning “dog”, which is after the canine Aztec deity Xolotl (who leads the soul of the dead to the underworld).

Rarely White

Contrary to many beliefs, the Mexican salamanders found in the wild are rarely seen as white. Though axolotls in captivity are dominated by a white appearance, wild axolotls normally are greenish brown or black. The color of axolotls is dependent upon pigment cells known as chromatophores and of which the genes dictate the pigment of the cell. The white axolotls are a product of selective breeding of the mutant male that was shipped to Paris in 1863, thus the color white and black eyes (not albinism since albinos generally have red eyes).

Biological Headdress

The feathery headdress of the axolotl adds to the salamanders’ majestic appearance. Many might see this as a fashion sense in the animal kingdom; however the headdress is a significant part of the axolotl’s survival – the headdress acts as gills. The longs gills, and the attached filaments, increase the surface area for gas exchange.

Only in One Place

Though axolotls are commonly seen in different aquariums and laboratories all around the globe, finding them in the wild however is more difficult. These animals can only be found in lakes and canals in Xochimilco, Mexico.

Neoteny

Believe it or not, axolotls grow but never mature. Axolotls exhibit a form of neotony: a creature can reach maturity without undergoing metamorphosis. They retain their feathery external gills, along with the tadpole-like dorsal fin which runs almost the length of the body, and can breathe underwater despite growing a pair of lungs. Furthermore, biologist Randal Voss further stated the advantage of such process.

“The one thing that neotenic species have an advantage is that if you don’t undergo metamorphosis, you’re more likely to reproduce sooner.”  

Regenerative Ability

Regeneration in amphibians is fairly common; however axolotls seem to a lot better n showing off: regeneration without any scars. The animal can regenerate limbs, jaws, spines, and even their own brains without scarring. A University-of-Montreal professor named Stephane Roy explained the phenomenon.

“You can cut the spinal cord, crush it, remove a segment, and it will regenerate. You can cut the limbs at any level – the wrist, the elbow, the upper arm – and it will regenerate, and it’s perfect. There is nothing missing, there’s no scarring on the skin at the site of the amputation, every tissue is replaced. They can regenerate the same limb 50, 60, 100 times. And every time: perfect.”

Instant Adult

With a sudden mutation or a shot of iodine, an axolotl can become an “instant adult”. The shot (or mutation) leads to a rush of hormones that leads to a sudden mutation. As a result, the axolotl’s appearance is greatly similar to its close relative, the tiger salamander, though breeding (only with their own kind) remains the same.

Yummy?

Believe it or not, axolotls are edible. Historically, axolotls are eaten by Xochimilco natives and known as a favorite as it is usually served in whole with cornmeal. Francesco Clavigero, in 1787, described his experience.

“…the axolotl is wholesome to eat, and is much the same taste with an eel. It is thought to be particularly useful in time of consumption.”

Currently, axolotl can still be eaten in selected restaurants, mostly in Japan. A restaurant in Osaka serves the axolotl whole in deep fried – which apparently taste like white fish but with a crunch.

Critically Endangered  

Looking how the axolotl can only be found in one place and the serious extraction of the organism from the stated area, it is no surprise that the axolotl is considered as a critically endangered species. However aside from that, habitat loss, pollution, and the introduction of invasive species such as tilapia and carp naturally contribute to issue.

In order to resolve the existing threat, scientists and researchers-alike constructed “shelters” made from reeds and rocks to filter the water and create a more desirable living place. Though the efforts have been evidently clear, the population of the axolotl continues to decline. In the 1998 survey, 6000 wild axolotls have been documented to reside in the area; however recently, the population has been approximated to be less than the documented. Furthermore, for a brief period in 2014, scientists failed to find any trace of the organism and directly inferred the extinction of the organism. Fortunately, in recent years, axolotls have been found roaming in the water and though it is unideal, the wild gene might have gone extinct however axolotls in captive continue to thrive.

Axolotls are seriously an amazing creature and could provide different aids with the human society. For instance, the organism’s regeneration could be harnessed to provide cure or aid in medical operation. However, with its declining population the wild, the dream for “miracle healing” would be stagnant and unreachable. Nevertheless, with outmost efforts to save the axolotls, is an effort to the save the ecosystem and the organisms living in it.

[biologycore]

“Bivalves: Most Efficient Bio Indicators” by Zdenalie J. Pagatpatan

Consider a habitat or an ecosystem given the unique cycle of life in that area and the hierarchical structure. Through the years, scientists observe changes happening in that locale. And these changes in populations of animal and plants affects certain group of species known as bio indicators. Different bio indicators are sensitive to different types of changes (Vaught, 1989).  

Bio indicators are organisms that indicate or monitor the health of the environment.  Bio indicators qualitatively assesses biotic responses to environmental stress (e.g., presence of the lichen, indicates poor air quality) (Holt & Miller, 2010). They a remarkable potential in forecasting of disasters, prevention of pollution, exploration and conservation of natural resources, all aiming at a sustainable development with minimum destruction of the biosphere (Campbell & Valentine, 1977). Bio indicators can be applied in predicting the impact of anthropogenic activities particularly pollutants and predicting environmental change in a timely manner (Burger, 2006). Their biological response of reveals the presence of the pollutants by the occurrence of typical symptoms or measurable responses, and is therefore more qualitative (Vaught, 1989).

So what makes a good bio indicator? Considering millions and millions of species that were currently documented on Earth, how do we classify just one as a bio indicator? Ecologists have established a broad set of criteria that species must exhibit to be considered good bio indicators. But above all these standards, the answer might be just quite simple. In a specific ecosystem, every species has specific roles and no single species can adequately indicate every type of disturbance or stress in all environments. It all depends upon the specific environment, the species present, and local disturbances. (Burger, 2006). A good bio indicator will indicate the presence of the pollutant and also attempt to provide additional information about the amount and intensity of the exposure.

An example of a good bio indicator—referred to as the Lamellibranchiata and Pelecypoda— came from the class Bivalvia.  Bivalvia is a class of marine and freshwater mollusks (e.g. Clams, mussels, giant clams) which species are the most affected group of organisms that work as essential bio indicators. Bivalves are identified as ‘Environmental Indicators’ – species or group of species responding predictably to environmental disturbances or change (e.g. sentinels, detector, exploiters, accumulators, bioassay organisms) (Holt & Miller 2010). They aim at diagnosing the state of the environment for environmental policy making.

Bivalves have laterally compressed bodies enclosed by a shell consisting of two hinged parts (Allmon, 1992). Bivalves include numerous families that live in saltwater, and well as a number of families that live in freshwater (Holt & Miller, 2010). A large number of them are very sensitive to changes in the sediment characteristics due to their link with the sediment features (grain size distribution, organic content) and the water column (for filter feeders). Being filter feeders, which is by they will take in contaminants with the sea water after accumulation in their body animals would show a range of symptoms pertaining to pollution related effects. Hence, they will be good indicators of environmental pollution (Vaught, 1989).

Bivalves have species with fast and slow growth which makes them a good target group for testing effects of environmental and human impacts of different sources (Hoffman & Szubzda-Studencka, 1982). Moreover, filter feeding and deposit feeding bivalves have physiological responses to food quality (and environmental quality) that can be easily measured plus they generally include contaminant particles and toxins in their body which can be used for indirect measurements of environmental quality (Levinton, 1974). Also, their shell is composed of calcium carbonate which allows to test effects of ocean acidification (Stehli et al., 1967).

Marine bivalves—aside from being good bio indicators— are diverse, well-studied and widely distributed group of marine organisms because not only they left behind an excellent paleo biogeographic record in their own right, they are also reasonable proxies for many other well-skeletonized groups (Bretsky, 1973). Present samples of the fauna include genera from the two most diverse superfamilies — Veneroidea and Tellinoidea.

Air pollution has been considered as a potential selection force for plants, therefore the species growing in such adverse roadside and seashore environment present the best material to ascertain the levels of susceptibility rather than drawing interpretations from measurements obtained from lab conditions (Deepalakshmi, 2013).  But depending on these indicators also means that these species are affected, thus needing prompt rescue. Instead of anticipating obvious changes in the environment, prevention and preservation is necessary before everything is too late. These are all just to make sure the ecosystem has stability and the cycle of life is not in grave danger.

[biologycore]

“Human Impact on the Carbon Cycle” by Elisha Kristin C. Pasco

Carbon Cycle is a repetitive event that involves everything that is in Earth, be it the atmosphere or the lithosphere. It is one of the key factors on why there is life on Earth and the process that shows how essential Carbon can be to our everyday. This cycle occurs when Carbon moves through the Earth’s waters, atmosphere, ecosystem and geosphere. It is able to do so, the Carbon, because living organisms are composed of carbon compounds, the fundamental building block of life. It also provides Earth with a warm blanket that traps some of the rays of the sun acting like the planet’s blanket.

Over the years however, the Carbon Cycle has been greatly influenced by humans especially when the period of industrialization began. This period is the time in history where the agrarian world was reformed into becoming an industrial one that mainly focuses on manufacturing (O’Sullivan et al, 2003). This brought forth the rise of numerous factories and the levelling of mountains and clearing the forest lands causing unnatural fluctuations due to the increase of carbon levels in the atmosphere (Fallowski et al, 2000).

Most of the products of industrialization had an end result of increasing carbon in the atmosphere. One of the most known is the burning of fossil fuels which produces emissions that moves carbon from the geosphere to the atmosphere. Another is the production of clinker that is used in cement, which also releases Carbon to the atmosphere. The reason why this is happening, the increasing amount of Carbon in the atmosphere is because of how the earth’s terrain has been changed throughout the years. Mountains were levelled, forests were cleared, even oceans were altered due to the great influence the humans have in this planet. This has cause drastic changes in the Earth’s biodiversity. A significant amount of plants and animals have gone extinct, and many more are in danger due to the problems brought about by the changes humans have created across the land, which  takes away their ability to absorb Carbon allowing it to rise in the atmosphere. The carbon cycle in the oceans was also not spared. Due to the increase in ocean temperature and wrong disposal of some agriculture companies, the carbon cycle of the ocean is no longer as efficient as it was before because the aforementioned has lessened their ability to do so.

The disruption of the cycle is a big threat, especially with the growing amounts of carbon in the atmosphere. Carbon may act as a blanket by trapping some of the sun’s rays but too much will turn this planet into an oven that may no longer be able to support life. An idea that may seem farfetched but with almost half of the carbon remaining in the atmosphere unabsorbed it is definitely not an impossible feat (Karl, 2015).

[biologycore]

“Seeing the Connection: TOURIST BOOM and ALGAL BLOOM” by Camerhon S. Diaz

                                                      Figure 1. Tourism by the beach

Tourism is the activity of traveling to a place for pleasure. It can bring numerous economic and social benefits, but mass tourism is also linked with negative effects. Tourism can only be ecological if it is carefully managed so that its negative effects on the environment will not be allowed to preponderate its benefits.

Based on an article at WWF, tourism helps advocate conservation of wildlife and natural resources such as rain forests, as these are considered as tourism assets. By creating alternative sources of employment, tourism reduces problems such as over- fishing and deforestation in developing nations.

But then most tourisms are not managed and balanced properly which creates negative effects that endangers the environment. According to an article at WWF, tourism poses a threat to a region’s natural and cultural resources, such as water supply, beaches, coral reefs and heritage sites, through over use. It also causes increased pollution through traffic emissions, littering, increased sewage production and noise. Massive influxes of tourists have a huge impact. They add to the pollution, waste, and water needs of the local population, putting local infrastructure and habitats under enormous pressure.

In many years, immense new tourist advances have been built. The destruction doesn’t end with the production of tourist facilities. Some resorts empty their sewage and other wastes straight into the water that is surrounded by coral reefs and other sensitive marine habitats. And these sewages promotes the growth of algae which in time results to algal bloom.

                                                      Figure 2. View of an Algal Bloom

Algae are microscopic organisms that live in aquatic environments and use photosynthesis to yield energy from sunlight, just like plants. Algae are simple plants that shape the base of food webs. And mostly, they are producers. Sometimes, however, their roles are more minatory. According to an article at National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), under the proper circumstances, the growth of algae may be uncontrolled—and a few of these “blooms” produce toxins that can kill fish, mammals and birds, and may cause human diseases or even death in risky circumstances. Other algae are nontoxic, but takes up all of the oxygen in the water as they decay, clog the gills of fish and invertebrates, or smother corals and submerged aquatic vegetation. Still others discolor water, form huge, smelly piles on beaches or contaminate drinking water. Collectively, these events are called Harmful Algae Blooms.

When algae grow excessively in a body of water, a harmful algal bloom occurs. The excessive algal growth or algal bloom becomes visible to the naked eye and can be green, blue- green, red, or brown, depending on the type of algae.

When the temperature is high, when exposed to sunlight, in favorable water movement, and with presence of excessive nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates, as it serves as fertilizers to algae, green algae blooms. Common sources of excessive nitrates are septic tanks and untreated wastewater from hotels that are built for tourists.

While green algal blooms are natural, the presence of excessive nutrients, composed mostly of nitrates and phosphates from untreated wastewater and septic tanks that are a result of a not properly managed tourism, provides the best and optimal condition for the excessive algal growth.

When managing tourism goes out of hand, it creates numbers of harmful effects and once one is started it will result into a ripple effect that will cause for other harmful events to happen to the environment.  Algal blooms can be an indicator of imbalanced marine ecosystem. This condition deprives most other organisms of oxygen, even killing them. Then, bacteria decomposes their bodies. The process uses up all the remaining oxygen, further killing other living organisms

According to an article entitled, “National Parks: The Impacts of Tourism”, scientists are still determining why Harmful Algal Blooms occur. They know that environmental factors trigger Harmful Algal Blooms, such as warmer water temperature in the summer and excessive nutrients from fertilizers or sewage waste that are brought by runoff. As climate change regularly warms the earth’s climate, scientists expect Harmful Algal Blooms to become more frequent, wide-ranging, and severe. 

Reliant on the kind of algae, Harmful Algal Blooms can cause serious health effects and even deaths. For example, eating seafood contaminated by toxins from algae called Alexandrium can lead to paralytic shellfish poisoning, which can cause paralysis and even death. The algae Pseudo-nitzschia produces a toxin called Domoic Acid that can cause vomiting, diarrhea, confusion, seizures, permanent short term memory loss, or, death, when consumed at high levels.

Furthermore, another article entitled, “EVEIL: The Global Impacts of Mass Tourism” sited that Harmful Algal Blooms can also cause fish kills and other damage to the environment. Harmful Algal Blooms can deplete oxygen in the water or simply block necessary sunlight from reaching organisms below the surface. Economic impacts of Harmful Algal Blooms on fisheries and recreational area can also be extensive. The human illnesses caused by Harmful Algal Blooms, though rare, can be debilitating or even fatal. Harmful Algal Blooms are national concern because they affect not only the health of people and marine ecosystems, but also the ‘health’ of local and regional economies.

These algae are considered as tiny plants with a toxic punch. Harmful Algal Blooms occur naturally, but human activities that disrupt ecosystems appear to play a part in the increased occurrence of some Algal Blooms. This paper emphasizes tourism as one of the main factor that contributes to the severity of the incidents of Algal Blooms. With the chain of negative effects that comes with the improper management of tourism, it can be concluded that the effects of the rise of tourism might be the cause for the loss of tourism. To help aid the occurrence of Algal Bloom, each community must have ordinances on water quality, building permits, discharge of pollutants, mooring of boats, and waste reduction.

[biologycore]

“BUTTERFLIES AS BIONDICATORS” by Julianne Carmelle P. Sanchez

When we were young, we used to draw a lot of butterflies when we were asked  by our teacher to draw something that we like. Butterflies, as what we’ve known are winged-insects that we can see in almost everywhere with flowers for pollination. These butterflies come in different colors; some can have vibrant colors while some have dull and dark ones. Everytime we see a butterfly, we’re like “OMG! Butterfly!” These elegant and beautiful creatures however these insects are not only for pollination and beauty but they play a major role in the ecological aspect of the environment. They act as bioindicators to the environment. What do you think the word biondicator means?

Bioindicators are organisms that can indicate if there is something wrong regarding the health of the environment or if there is an alteration to their environmeny. Bioindicators can be animals, plants, or sometimes bacteria. They indicate the qualitative status of a certain environment or ecosystem. For example, lichens are known to be sensitive to sulfur. So when an environment increases the amount of sulfur, the lichens would most probably increase their mortality rate. However, there are also species that would tend to increase their population when there is a change in the ecosystem. However, if there was no big change in the organism's population, then it's most likely that the change isn’t really significant that it didn’t have that much effect on the organism’s population. So when pollutants or something is present the organism may change its outward appearance, physical or biochemical functions or it could even die. 

Although butterflies may seem like an attractive addition to your flower garden they are a more than just an insect than most people realize. Butterflies act as a vital wildlife indicator, they can tell us almost everything we need to know about the health of an ecosystem. Butterflies are increasingly being recognised as valuable environmental indicators, both for their rapid and sensitive responses to subtle habitat or climatic changes and as representatives for the diversity and responses of other wildlife. Butterflies are one of the most important bioindicators since they react extremely quickly to even minor changes in the environment, they have also short life cycles and thus they can rapidly react towhatever change is happening in the environment.. They also provide an early warning system for other reductions in wildlife. Butterflies are often used to study the effects of climate change because of their sensitivity to climatic variables. As a result, they are now the best-monitored group of insects in the world.

Here are some of the evidences of the effects of the environment to the population and biodiversity of the butterflies in different places. In Europe, the effects of nitrogen from fertilizer or precipitation on the food plants and microclimate of caterpillars have a significant impact on butterfly communities. And in regions like Asia, there is a habitat and species loss is extreme due to a doubling of the human population in the past 40 years.

Global warming has already begun. Since 1900, the global average temperature has risen by 0.7 degrees Celsius, and the northern hemisphere is substantially warmer than at any point during the past 1,000 years. Climate change effect every living creature on planet, however the extent and degree of its impact vary from species to species. Some species are benefited with this change and some are damaged. Human activities also destroy the butterfly habitats. Global climate fluctuation also affects the butterfly habitats. Governmental policy on forestry, farming and road planning has great effect on the abundance and distribution of butterflies. Due to the depletion of the habitat of the butterflies from the global climate change, plants will also be affected. Butterflies are a major pollinator of both wild and cultivated plants. Without them and other important pollinating insects flying around, there will be a significant decline in viable seed produced.

Although butterflies are considered as one of the best environmental indicators, there are still numerous of species that would be considered as environmental indicators since the climate change effects from species to species. Each species has a different response to a certain change in the environment.

[biologycore]

“APEX PREDATORS AS KEYSTONE SPECIES” by Robert Dominic B. Condor

Keystone species are defined as species that have a major impact on an ecosystem. Examples of these keystone species are Apex predators, more commonly known as “top” predators are also an example of keystone species. They are called “top” predators due to them being on the top of the food chain and that they have few natural predators. Some examples of apex predators are cougars, lions, wolves, and sharks. Today, the numbers of these predators are declining and are causing major damages to their respective ecosystems.

How can we tell that apex predators are really keystone species? Studies have shown that place with apex predators have more diverse species and a more balanced ecosystem than those places without apex predators. The reason behind this problem is that when there is a decline of apex predators there is a surge or an increase of “mesopredators” since the apex predators are no longer hunting them. With an increase of “mesopredators” (also called the “secondary” or “middle” predators), the ecosystem is unbalanced and this can cause problems within their ecosystems.

The absence of apex or top predators can greatly affect their ecosystem and can be a danger to not only other animals but also to plants. If there is no apex predator, there will be an increase of mesopredators and the surge of these secondary predators can mean similar or new problems will appear. For example, in Sub-Saharan Africa, the apex predators, specifically lions and leopards, are declining due to poaching and hunting. The mesopredators, which are the baboons, now have a lesser threat in terms of survival and now can freely roam with little to no fear of being eaten. With the increase in the population of baboons, they are considered pests due to them eating and destroying the crops of the local farmers.

One of the best examples of apex predators having a positive impact on their ecosystems are sharks. Sharks have a very important role in their ecosystems and are considered as keystone species since if they are removed from the food chain many more species could be wiped out. The importance of having sharks in the ecosystem is that they have huge roles in the ocean such as keeping the population of marine life stable so they don’t damage the ecosystem by being too numerous; They hunt the sick and the weak making the population of the animals healthier; Some eat dead fishes and this can prevent diseases for some animals; and they help habitats, such as sea grass beds, remain healthy by intimidating their prey, due to this their prey keep on moving and looking for different areas where they can get their food, which in turn gives the habitat time to heal and provide food for another time.

                                     Figure 1. A shark in an ecosystem

Another example of a great impact these apex predators have is on Yellowstone National Park, where the dominating predator is the mighty wolf. The last pack of wolves in Yellowstone National Park was killed off in 1926 since there were still no laws protecting them. As the apex predators decreased in number, their prey, elk, increased in number and now roam freely in the park. The increase of the population of elk in the park meant danger to the different species within the park such as birds, bears, and most notably, the beavers. Birds and bears relied on the wolf’s elk kills for food because they were scavengers and without the wolf, there were less elk carcasses and this affected them. The beavers on the other hand were affected by the increase in elks since the elks ate willows, a plant that beavers needed to survive for the winter, in turn, this affected the population of the beavers and since there were less beaver colonies there were lesser beaver dams. The lack of beaver dams was then the cause of the change of the path of the river and affecting other species. Even in the 1930’s scientists began to observe the changes of the park and finally in 1995, biologists in Yellowstone brought in 14 Canadian wolves in hopes of saving the park. Now, the park is doing better, the elk population decreased and the beaver colonies are growing and while there is still disagreement that the wolves really saved the park, the evidence is overwhelming. 

               Figure 2. A Canadian wolf being released into Yellowstone National Park in 1995

Although apex predators are considered a danger to humans and hunt them for safety, hunting these animals can cause problems along the line. These problems not only affect other species but it can also affect us humans. The two scenarios discussed above prove that if one of the building blocks of the food chain is gone or eradicated, there will be grave consequences to other species and to the ecosystem.

[biologycore]

“Why do birds suddenly appear?” by Rey Anthony A. Balan

The phrase ”Why do birds suddenly appear” seems to be just a passing saying, either a metaphor for stating that love is in the air or a simple indication of a good and happy mood. However, this phenomenon can be correlated to a pressing concern of our modern society: species habitat destruction brought by rapid and uncontrolled urbanization that ultimately lead to biodiversity loss.

This may seem a bit absurd, “Why is such a happy-go-lucky statement that much of a concern to our environment?” Simply put that birds spawning in the most unlikely areas are indicative of a serious and underlying problem that might concern the whole ecosystem.

Scientists have been constantly monitoring ecosystem processes over the course of decades through meticulous researches. It can be noted that data gathered from these studies have shown that naturally, our planet has had countless declines in populations and even recorded mass extinctions. Generally these changes have been interpreted to normal changes in biodiversity, as they did in the early 20th century,that led to the assumption that environments simply change. These changes go through very slowly, giving many species time to adapt and allowing nature to take its course. But the current situation says otherwise.

The whole of Earth’s ecosystems have been dramatically tampered by human activities to the point that it is not strange to say that the world is not the same as it was a mere decade ago. Studies have shown that there are numerous causes of biodiversity loss. Factors such as land use change, urbanization, climate change, invasive species, overexploitation, and pollution all lead to biodiversity loss and almost (if not) all are results of human activities. The rate of biodiversity loss and changes related to the environment is considered the fastest throughout human history without any sign of it slowing down.

Take for example the report from the Environment New Science back in 1999. It has been observed at that time that the extinction rate has been nearing 1000 times the previous recorded rates and the possibility of it becoming 10000 times over the course of the next century is not far-fetched. And in 2005, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment reported that 10­30 percent of mammal,bird,and amphibian species are nearing extinction as a result of human activity, particularly through conversion of natural habitats to commercial or residential areas.

The World Conservation Union (which is based on Switzerland)has already included more than a total of 16,000 entries in its Red List of Threatened Species, with vertebrates as the second highest most threatened group of organisms. Since 1500 there already have been 784 documented cases of species extinction and the IUCN estimates that the rates of species disappearing have gone up 50 to 500 times compared to those rates calculated from the fossil record.

Species population decline is also observable in the community level. In the Philippine Science High-School-Central Visayas Campus for example, it is observed that birds which are relatively rare but were once pretty commonly seen around the campus are tallying less in the number of occurrences being seen in the area. The blue kingfisher, pied-fantail, and other rare birds that were commonly seen in the area have been making less appearances, an indication of their dwindling population. However, common birds that are much greater in population such as the local Gorion and common crows are seen making nests in the academic buildings and most especially, in the gymnasium. This is a clear indication of desperate attempts of the species to survive, disregarding primal instincts telling them to find the highest or most suitable tree to build their nests, taking into account their new urbanized environment. Taking literal meaning into consideration, the sudden yet minimal appearance of these birds in the most unlikely places is a denotation of habitat loss brought upon by converting the forest into academic grounds without properly considering its direct effect on the ecosystem that it invaded.

The importance of biodiversity is beyond debate. The benefits the human species are taking from a well-balanced ecosystem are numerous and biodiversity plays a crucial role when looked at how the ecosystem functions to provide necessities ranging from basic human needs for survival to selected luxuries. Therefore it is imperative to consider taking actions to conserve biodiversity whilst providing human necessity.

One of the possible courses of action are community-based solutions through designation of various protected area where biodiversity is high. These areas, if merely designated as protected without proper protection, are still prone to destruction brought by external factors such as poachers or unmediated development. In order for this to thrive, one possible solution is to convert these areas to tourists attractions. That way, the government has a reason to engage in such action by justifying their costs through foreseeable profit.

In the end, it is important to take note that individual involvement is also a crucial part for these actions to succeed. Local government units can then offer livelihood programs that are related to maintaining these protected areas. In that way, the government has a high chance of instilling the importance of biodiversity conservation through emphasis on the fact that their jobs depend on it and by showing that one way or another, all jobs still depend on nature.

All of these reside on the fact that biodiversity loss is because of species population decline due to habitat destruction that is brought upon by human activities. This is in hope that the in the end, the phrase “Why do birds suddenly appear?”will no longer mean a disoriented appearance of birds because their habitat have been struck down, but rather a statement of abundance of biodiversity that we have successfully conserved.

[biologycore]

“Honing Homo sapiens: From Pests to Catalysts” by Gleo Agustein G. Sevilla

The existence and diversity of life are the main features of mankind’s home, the Earth. Approximately nine million types of plants, animals, protists and fungi inhabit the Earth. These are in addition to the seven billion people of today (Cardinale et al., 2012). Biodiversity can truly be considered as the core of humanity’s existence.

Biodiversity is a contraction of “biological diversity.” It refers to the number, variety and variability of living organisms. Although many definitions of biodiversity exist, the definition provided by the Convention on Biological Diversity is the most cited. According to it, “biological diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems” (Hens and Boon, 2003).

Numerous threats to biodiversity exist today, however. According to Schulze and Mooney (1994), the five main threats to biodiversity are habitat loss, climate change, overexploitation, invasive alien species and pollution. First, habitat loss is the result of the transformation or modification of natural environments in order to fulfill human needs. Common types of habitat loss include cutting down forests for timber and making dams out of rivers to have more water available for agriculture and cities. Second, climate change is caused by a build-up of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere. Climate change alters the climate patterns and ecosystems in which species have evolved and on which they depend. Third, overexploitation, or unsustainable use, happens when biodiversity is removed faster than it can be replenished and, over the long term, can result in the extinction of species. For example, Encephalartos brevifoliolatus, a cycad, is now extinct in the wild after being overharvested for horticulture utilization. Fourth, invasive alien species are species that have spread outside of their natural habitat and threaten biodiversity in their new area. These species are harmful to native biodiversity in a number of ways, for example as predators, parasites, vectors of disease or direct competitors for habitat and food. Fifth, pollution is a growing threat on both land and in aquatic ecosystems. While the large-scale use of fertilizers has allowed for the increased production of food, it has also caused severe environmental damage (Schulze and Mooney, 1994). All these drivers of biodiversity loss have human activities as contributors, as shown in Figure 1 (Chapin et al., 2000).

                      Figure 1. The role of biodiversity in global changes (Chapin et al., 2000).

At the first Earth Summit, which was approximately two decades ago, most nations or countries declared that human actions and activities were dismantling the Earth’s ecosystems, and eliminating genes, species and biological traits at a very alarming rate (Cardinale et al., 2012).

Humans have detrimental contributions on biodiversity loss. This can be traced back to humanity’s own history. For instance, in the Americas, charismatic large-bodied animals such as saber-toothed cats (Smilodon spp.), mammoths (Mammuthus spp.), and giant ground sloths (Megalonyx jeffersonii) vanished after humans arrived around 11,000 to 13,000 years ago. Similar losses occurred in Australia 45,000 years ago and in many oceanic islands within a few hundred years of the arrival of humans. Classic examples of the loss of island endemics include the dodo (Raphus cucullatus) from Mauritius, moas (e.g., Dinornis maximus) from New Zealand, and elephant birds (Aepyornis maximus) from Madagascar (Sodhi et al., n.d.).

Humans have continuously damaged the biodiversity up to the present time. The rate and extent of extinctions caused by humans have been debated. However, there is a general agreement that extinction rates have increased in the recent hundred years due to the abrupt habitat destruction from European colonialism and from continuous expansion of human population (Sodhi et al., n.d.). Alteration in the global environment, changes in global biogeochemical cycles, transformations of lands and enhancement of the mobility of biota have occurred due to humankind. Fossil-fuel combustion and deforestation have increased the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) by 30% in the past three centuries. Human activities have more than doubled the concentration of methane and increased concentrations of other gases that contribute to global warming. In the next century, these greenhouse gases are likely to cause the most rapid climate change that the Earth has experienced since the end of the last glaciation 18,000 years ago and perhaps a much longer time. Industrial fixation of nitrogen for fertilizer and other human activities have more than doubled the rates of terrestrial fixation of gaseous nitrogen into biologically available forms. The run off of nutrients from agricultural and urban systems has increased also in the developed river basins of the Earth, resulting to major ecological changes in estuaries and coastal zones. Humans have transformed 40% to 50% of the ice-free land surface. Humans have changed prairies, forests and wetlands into agricultural and urban system. Humans dominate about one-third of the net primary productivity on land and harvest fish that use 8% of ocean productivity. In fact, 54% of the available fresh water is being utilized. This use is even projected to increase to 70% by 2050. Finally, the mobility of people has transported organisms across geographical barriers that have kept the biotic regions of the Earth separated. As a result, many of the ecologically important plant and animal species of many areas have been introduced in foreign areas (Chapin et al., 2000).

The extinction of certain species such as large predators and pollinators may have more devastating ecological consequences than the extinction of others. Ironically, avian vulnerability to predation is often worsen when certain large predatory species become rarer in tropical communities. For example, although large cats such as jaguars (Panthera onca) do not prey on small birds directly, they exert a limiting force on smaller predators such as medium-sized and small mammals, which become more abundant with the former species’ decline. Conservation biologists have traditionally focused on the study of the independent declines or extinctions of individual species while paying relatively less attention to the possible effects of species coextinctions (e.g., hosts and their parasites). However, it is likely that many coextinctions between interdependent taxa have occurred, but most have gone unnoticed in these relatively understudied systems. For example, an extinct feather louse (Columbicola extinctus) was discovered in 1937, 23 years after likely coextinction with its host passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) (Sodhi et al., n.d.).

Biodiversity provides or modifies the resources that we use to satisfy our basic needs such as drinking water, food, shelter and medicines. Thus, biodiversity is essential to our health (Ostfeld and Keesing, 2013). Biodiversity loss can threaten countless human lives. While many people have benefited over the last century from the conversion of natural ecosystems to human-dominated ecosystems, other people have constantly suffered from the consequences (Green Facts, n.d.). The world’s poor will most likely bear the immediate and direct costs of biodiversity losses. Nevertheless, it is clear from these and many other international studies that the world as a whole will be affected (Slingenberg et al., n.d.).

       Figure 2. Worldwide depiction of threatened biodiversity hotspots (Slingenberg et al., n.d.).

The loss of biodiversity is expected to continue at an unchanged increasing pace in the coming decades. Key underlying drivers, global population and economic activity are expected to keep on growing. Between 2000 and 2050, the global population is projected to grow by 50% and the global economy will quadruple. The need for food, energy and wood will unavoidably lead to a decrease in and unsustainable use of natural resources. The negative impacts of climate change, nitrogen deposition, fragmentation, infrastructure and unchecked human settlement on biodiversity will further expand. As a result, global biodiversity is projected to decrease from about 70% in 2000 to about 63% by 2050. Figure 2 provides an overview of worldwide critically endangered, vulnerable and relatively stable or intact biodiversity hotspots (Slingenberg et al., n.d.).

Humans are the roots of biodiversity loss and are also the ones suffering from its detrimental fruits. Human effects on climate, biogeochemical cycles, land use and mobility of organisms have changed the local and global diversity of the planet, with important ecosystem and societal consequences. Hence, humans hold the solutions as well. Humans are the only ones who can save biodiversity, the very core of life’s existence. Humans are the only ones who can change from being the “pests” to being the “catalysts” for inclusive change and betterment.