#analog multiplexing

[jnthn2rris]

https://www.futureelectronics.com/p/semiconductors--analog--multiplexer-demultiplexer/dg406dn-t1-e3-vishay-3148293

What is an encoder and a decoder, digital data converter, communication network

Single 16 Channel 5 to 20 V 50 Ω CMOS Analog Multiplexer - PLCC-28

[adafruit]

TLV320ADCx140 4-Channel microphone I2S ADC 4-Channel microphone I2S ADC 🎤🔊🔧

We saw this TLV320 4-channel microphone ADC in an Echo Dot teardown

and thought it looked like a handy I2S chip. You can have 4 PDM or analog microphones for input, and data comes out on a single stereo I2S channel with time division multiplexing. Four inputs are better than 2 when using microphones for voice array/location projects. This chip doesn't need MCLK, so it would probably work better with a Raspberry Pi! The chip comes in a few flavors, with 106, 120, or 122 dB SNR (you pay more for the 122!) TLV320ADC5140 (as used in the Echo Dot) is in stock at DigiKey

and we'll probably use that one.

[semiconductorlogs]

Video Multiplexer Market: Role in Sustainable Architecture and Design, 2025-2032

MARKET INSIGHTS

The global Video Multiplexer Market size was valued at US$ 445.8 million in 2024 and is projected to reach US$ 712.4 million by 2032, at a CAGR of 6.96% during the forecast period 2025-2032. The U.S. market accounted for 32% of global revenue share in 2024, while China is anticipated to grow at a faster CAGR of 9.1% through 2032.

Video multiplexers are critical components in digital signal processing that combine multiple video streams into a single transmission channel. These devices employ various multiplexing technologies including Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM), Wavelength-division Multiplexing (WDM), and Time-division Multiplexing (TDM), among others. The FDM segment currently dominates with 42% market share, driven by its widespread use in broadcast and telecommunications infrastructure.

Market growth is propelled by escalating demand for high-bandwidth video transmission across broadcasting, surveillance, and telemedicine applications. Key players like Analog Devices and Moog Components Group are expanding their portfolios through strategic acquisitions, with the top five companies collectively holding 58% market share in 2024. Recent advancements in 5G infrastructure and IP-based video distribution are creating new opportunities for multiplexer technologies in smart city deployments and cloud-based video services.

MARKET DYNAMICS

MARKET DRIVERS

Rising Demand for High-Bandwidth Video Streaming to Accelerate Market Growth

The global video multiplexer market is witnessing substantial growth driven by the exponential increase in high-definition and ultra-high-definition video content consumption. With streaming platforms experiencing over 50% year-over-year growth in 4K content delivery, multiplexers have become essential for optimizing bandwidth utilization. These devices enable efficient transmission by combining multiple video signals into a single stream, reducing infrastructure costs by up to 30% for content delivery networks. The shift towards OTT platforms and IPTV services is further propelling demand, as providers seek to deliver seamless multi-channel experiences without compromising quality.

5G Network Expansion Creates New Application Horizons

The global rollout of 5G networks presents significant opportunities for video multiplexer adoption, particularly in mobile broadcasting and live streaming applications. With 5G offering speeds up to 100 times faster than 4G, broadcasters now require advanced multiplexing solutions to handle increased data volumes efficiently. The technology enables smooth transmission of multi-angle sports broadcasts, simultaneous streaming of multiple 8K feeds, and real-time interactive content. Major telecommunications companies are investing heavily in 5G infrastructure, with projected cumulative investments exceeding $1 trillion globally by 2030, driving parallel growth in supporting technologies like video multiplexers.

Smart City Deployments Fueling Surveillance Sector Demand

Urban surveillance systems are increasingly incorporating video multiplexers to manage the growing volumes of CCTV footage from smart city projects. Modern multiplexers can process inputs from thousands of cameras while maintaining high-resolution output for security monitoring. With over 500 smart city projects currently active worldwide, each deploying hundreds to thousands of cameras, the market for surveillance-grade multiplexers is experiencing 20-25% annual growth. Advanced features like AI-enabled threat detection and automatic camera switching are further enhancing the value proposition of these systems in public safety applications.

MARKET RESTRAINTS

Latency Issues in Real-Time Applications Challenge Market Penetration

While video multiplexers offer bandwidth efficiency, they often introduce processing delays that can impact time-sensitive applications. In live broadcasting scenarios, particularly sports and news coverage, even milliseconds of latency can create synchronization issues between multiple camera angles. The most advanced multiplexers currently achieve latency figures around 50-100ms, which remains problematic for applications requiring sub-30ms performance. This technical limitation restricts adoption in fields like live esports production and high-frequency trading surveillance where real-time performance is critical.

High Implementation Costs Deter Small-Scale Operators

The substantial capital expenditure required for professional-grade video multiplexing systems presents a significant barrier to entry for smaller media companies and local broadcasters. Entry-level systems capable of handling 4-8 HD streams typically start above $5,000, while enterprise solutions for major broadcast centers can exceed $500,000. Additionally, the specialized hardware requirements often necessitate costly infrastructure upgrades, including high-capacity storage solutions and specialized networking equipment. These financial barriers limit market expansion among budget-conscious operators in developing regions and niche markets.

Standardization Challenges Across Regions

The lack of universal standards in video compression protocols creates compatibility issues that hinder seamless market growth. While many regions have adopted H.265/HEVC as the standard for high-efficiency video coding, different countries implement varying profiles and extensions of the standard. This fragmentation forces manufacturers to produce region-specific hardware variants, increasing development costs and complicating supply chain management. The ongoing transition to newer codecs like AV1 and VVC further compounds these challenges during the interim adoption period.

MARKET OPPORTUNITIES

Cloud-Based Multiplexing Solutions Present New Revenue Streams

The shift towards virtualized broadcasting infrastructure is creating demand for software-defined video multiplexing solutions. Cloud-based multiplexers eliminate the need for expensive hardware while offering superior scalability – a single virtual instance can typically handle twice the number of streams as equivalent hardware at 40% lower operational costs. Major cloud providers are actively developing media-specific services, with the cloud video processing market projected to grow at 28% CAGR through 2030. This transition enables broadcasters to implement flexible pay-as-you-go models while reducing their physical infrastructure footprint.

AI Integration Enhances Smart Streaming Capabilities

Advanced machine learning algorithms are being incorporated into next-generation multiplexers to optimize content delivery dynamically. AI-enabled systems can analyze network conditions in real-time to adjust bitrates, prioritize critical streams, and even predict bandwidth requirements before congestion occurs. Such intelligent multiplexers have demonstrated 15-20% improvements in bandwidth utilization during peak periods. The technology shows particular promise for adaptive bitrate streaming applications, where it can reduce buffering incidents by up to 35% while maintaining consistent video quality across diverse viewing devices.

Emerging Markets Offer Untapped Growth Potential

Developing regions present significant expansion opportunities as digital infrastructure improves across Asia, Africa, and Latin America. With internet penetration in these regions expected to grow by 150-200% over the next decade, local content providers require cost-effective solutions to manage their expanding viewer bases. Localized product offerings featuring simplified interfaces and regional language support could capture substantial market share from global players. Additionally, government initiatives promoting digital broadcasting transitions and rural connectivity programs are creating favorable conditions for video multiplexer adoption in these high-growth markets.

VIDEO MULTIPLEXER MARKET TRENDS

High-Definition and Ultra-High-Definition Content Demand Driving Market Growth

The increasing consumption of high-definition (HD) and ultra-high-definition (UHD) content across broadcasting, streaming, and telecommunications sectors is significantly bolstering the demand for advanced video multiplexers. With over 78% of global internet traffic now attributed to video content, providers are investing heavily in bandwidth-efficient transmission technologies. Modern video multiplexers enable efficient compression and transmission of multiple HD/UHD streams over single channels, reducing infrastructure costs while maintaining quality. The integration of AI-driven adaptive bitrate streaming further enhances this efficiency, creating new opportunities across OTT platforms and IPTV services.

Other Trends

Edge Computing Integration

The deployment of edge computing infrastructure is enabling distributed video processing architectures. Leading multiplexer manufacturers now offer solutions that perform transcoding and packaging at the network edge, reducing backbone bandwidth requirements by 40-60%. This trend aligns with the growing demand for localized content delivery in smart city applications and targeted advertising scenarios.

Regulatory Push for Spectrum Efficiency

Governments worldwide are implementing stricter spectrum efficiency regulations, compelling broadcasters and telecom operators to upgrade their multiplexing infrastructure. Recent FCC rulings on repurposing C-band spectrum for 5G, for instance, have accelerated the adoption of advanced statistical multiplexing techniques that can deliver 20-30% more channels within existing frequency allocations. Similar regulatory pressures in Europe and Asia-Pacific are driving replacement cycles for legacy equipment, creating a $2.1 billion annual retrofit opportunity through 2027.

COMPETITIVE LANDSCAPE

Key Industry Players

Technological Innovation and Strategic Partnerships Drive Market Competition

The global video multiplexer market exhibits a moderately consolidated competitive structure, with several established players dominating revenue shares while emerging competitors continue gaining traction through niche offerings. Analog Devices commands significant market position owing to its diversified product range spanning frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) and wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) solutions, coupled with extensive distribution networks across North America and Europe.

Böning Automationstechnologie GmbH & Co. KG has carved a strong foothold in industrial applications through high-performance TDM multiplexers, particularly in manufacturing automation systems. Meanwhile, Moog Components Group strengthened its market position by focusing on mission-critical communication infrastructure, securing several defense sector contracts in 2023-2024.

The competitive intensity is increasing as companies invest in 5G-compatible multiplexing solutions, with FTA Bvba making notable strides in software-defined video multiplexing platforms. Recent industry benchmarks indicate the top five players collectively held approximately 42-48% market share in 2024, with this concentration expected to rise as consolidation accelerates.

Manufacturers are adopting divergent strategies – while larger players emphasize vertical integration of signal processing components, mid-tier competitors like FTA Bvba are pursuing customized solutions for broadcast and surveillance applications. This tactical segmentation creates multiple growth avenues across different price-performance tiers.

List of Key Video Multiplexer Companies Profiled

Analog Devices, Inc. (U.S.)

Böning Automationstechnologie GmbH & Co. KG (Germany)

FTA Bvba (Belgium)

Moog Components Group (U.S.)

Evertz Microsystems Ltd. (Canada)

Rohde & Schwarz GmbH & Co. KG (Germany)

Imagine Communications Corp. (U.S.)

Harmonic Inc. (U.S.)

Nevion AS (Norway)

Segment Analysis:

By Type

Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM) Segment Dominates Due to High Compatibility with Legacy Systems

The market is segmented based on type into:

Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

Wavelength-division Multiplexing (WDM)

Time-division Multiplexing (TDM)

Code-division Multiplexing (CDM)

Space-division Multiplexing (SDM)

Polarization-division Multiplexing (PDM)

By Application

Communications Industry Leads Market Adoption Due to Increasing Bandwidth Requirements

The market is segmented based on application into:

Communications Industry

Consumer Electronics

Others

By Technology

Digital Multiplexing Technology Gaining Traction Due to HD Video Transmission Demand

The market is segmented based on technology into:

Analog Multiplexing

Digital Multiplexing

By End-use

Broadcast Segment Drives Market Growth Due to Rising IPTV and OTT Platforms

The market is segmented based on end-use into:

Broadcast

Telecommunications

Security & Surveillance

Enterprise

Others

Regional Analysis: Video Multiplexer Market

North America North America remains a leading force in the Video Multiplexer market, driven by the region’s advanced communications infrastructure and high adoption of emerging broadcasting technologies. The U.S. market, valued at approximately $XX million in 2024, is witnessing robust growth due to the increasing demand for high-definition (HD) and ultra-high-definition (UHD) broadcasting. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations on spectrum efficiency have accelerated the deployment of Time-division Multiplexing (TDM) solutions, particularly in digital cable and satellite TV networks. Additionally, investments in 5G backhaul infrastructure ($XX billion allocated by major telecom operators in 2024) are fostering demand for scalable multiplexing solutions. Key vendors such as Analog Devices and Moog Components Group dominate the competitive landscape, offering low-latency solutions for real-time video streaming.

Europe Europe’s market is characterized by stringent broadcasting compliance standards, particularly the Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) framework, which mandates efficient bandwidth utilization across cable, satellite, and terrestrial networks. Germany and France are pivotal markets, where Wavelength-division Multiplexing (WDM) adoption is rising in fiber-optic broadband networks to support 4K/8K content transmission. The EU’s Next Generation Internet (NGI) initiative further fuels innovation, prompting vendors to focus on energy-efficient multiplexers with minimal signal distortion. However, the fragmented regulatory environment across EU member states poses challenges for standardized deployments.

Asia-Pacific China and India dominate the APAC Video Multiplexer market, accounting for over 45% of global consumption in 2024, propelled by massive investments in OTT platforms ($XX billion in 2024 alone) and the migration from analog to digital broadcasting. While Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM) remains prevalent in legacy systems, telecom giants are transitioning to Space-division Multiplexing (SDM) to address urban congestion in metro networks. Government-led smart city projects—such as India’s “Broadband for All” initiative—are accelerating demand, though cost sensitivity still favors local manufacturers over global players in price-driven segments.

South America South America presents a mixed landscape, with Brazil leading due to its expanding pay-TV sector (X million subscribers in 2024) and modernization of public broadcasting infrastructure. However, economic instability and limited R&D investments have constrained adoption of premium multiplexing technologies like Polarization-division Multiplexing (PDM). Hybrid Code-division Multiplexing (CDM) solutions are gaining traction for rural connectivity, leveraging existing satellite networks. The lack of consistent spectrum policies across countries remains a hurdle for market consolidation.

Middle East & Africa The MEA region exhibits nascent but high-potential growth, driven by giga-projects in the GCC (e.g., Saudi Arabia’s NEOM) and Africa’s expanding mobile broadband penetration. UAE and Saudi Arabia are early adopters of IP-based multiplexers for stadium broadcasts and surveillance systems. In Africa, Chinese-funded fiber-optic projects are integrating low-cost TDM solutions, albeit with latency trade-offs. Political volatility and underdeveloped last-mile infrastructure continue to slow progress, despite rising demand from localized content producers.

Report Scope

This market research report provides a comprehensive analysis of the Global and regional Video Multiplexer markets, covering the forecast period 2025–2032. It offers detailed insights into market dynamics, technological advancements, competitive landscape, and key trends shaping the industry.

Key focus areas of the report include:

Market Size & Forecast: Historical data and future projections for revenue, unit shipments, and market value across major regions and segments. The Global Video Multiplexer market was valued at USD 256.4 million in 2024 and is projected to reach USD 387.1 million by 2032, growing at a CAGR of 5.3% during the forecast period.

Segmentation Analysis: Detailed breakdown by product type (FDM, WDM, TDM, CDM, SDM, PDM), application (Communications Industry, Consumer Electronics, Others), and end-user industry to identify high-growth segments.

Regional Outlook: Insights into market performance across North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, Latin America, and Middle East & Africa. The U.S. market is estimated at USD 78.2 million in 2024, while China is projected to reach USD 92.5 million by 2032.

Competitive Landscape: Profiles of leading market participants including Analog Devices, Böning Automationstechnologie, FTA Bvba, and Moog Components Group, covering their product portfolios, market shares, and strategic developments.

Technology Trends & Innovation: Assessment of emerging multiplexing technologies, integration with 5G networks, and advancements in signal processing algorithms.

Market Drivers & Restraints: Evaluation of factors such as increasing demand for high-bandwidth video transmission, growth in IP video surveillance, alongside challenges like signal interference and high implementation costs.

Stakeholder Analysis: Strategic insights for equipment manufacturers, network operators, system integrators, and investors regarding market opportunities and technological evolution.

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[forbiddenhoardtreasure]

RF Switches Market Is Driven by 5G Expansion

Radio frequency (RF) switches are semiconductor devices designed to route high-frequency signals between different paths in wireless communication systems. These switches offer low insertion loss, high isolation, compact size and rapid switching speed, making them essential components in smartphones, base stations, satellite transceivers, automotive radar and defense radar systems. As the demand for higher data rates and reliable connectivity rises, RF switches facilitate seamless signal routing and multiplexing across multiple frequency bands, supporting 4G LTE, 5G NR and emerging Internet of Things (IoT) applications.

The market growth is further propelled by the miniaturization of devices, stringent power-efficiency requirements and the need for robust performance in harsh environments. With diverse market segments—electromechanical, solid-state, and MEMS switches—manufacturers are focusing on innovation in materials and packaging to enhance durability and reduce parasitic effects. Advances in gallium nitride (GaN) and silicon-on-insulator (SOI) technologies are also widening market opportunities by enabling higher power handling and extended frequency range. Furthermore, system-level integration and the rising adoption of smart automotive and industrial IoT solutions are driving RF Switches Market­­­ dynamics.

The RF switches market is estimated to be valued at USD 4.87 Bn in 2025 and is expected to reach USD 8.19 Bn by 2032. It is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.7% from 2025 to 2032. Key Takeaways Key players operating in the RF Switches Market are:

-Skyworks Solutions, Inc.

-Keysight Technologies Inc.

-MACOM Technology Solutions Inc.

-Analog Devices, Inc.

-Infineon Technologies

These companies dominate market share through continuous R&D investments and strategic partnerships. Skyworks leverages its expertise in silicon and compound semiconductor platforms to deliver switches with high isolation and low power consumption, while MACOM focuses on GaN-based solutions to tap into the high-power segment. Analog Devices integrates RF switches into larger transceiver modules, enabling system-level performance gains and cost efficiencies. Infineon Technologies, with its strong patent portfolio, drives industry trends by introducing innovative packaging techniques that enhance thermal management. Keysight Technologies, although primarily known for test and measurement instruments, supports market growth by providing market research and insights that help switch manufacturers optimize design and test processes. Collectively, these market companies contribute to the evolving market dynamics and form the backbone of the global RF switch ecosystem.

‣ Get More Insights On: RF Switches Market­­­

‣ Get this Report in Japanese Language: RFスイッチ市場

‣ Get this Report in Korean Language: RF스위치시장

[asourcing-electronicssupplier]

ADG1606BRUZ Analog Switch Review: High-Performance 16-Channel Multiplexer from ADI

In today’s fast-evolving world of electronic design, signal switching and multiplexing technologies are more crucial than ever. Whether it’s data acquisition systems, medical instruments, industrial automation, or communication infrastructure, a reliable and high-performance analog switch IC is essential to ensure system stability and efficiency. This article introduces the ADG1606BRUZ from Analog Devices (ADI), a standout solution in the field of analog multiplexers.

About ADI: A Global Leader in Analog Technology

Analog Devices (ADI) is a world-renowned manufacturer of high-performance analog, mixed-signal, and digital signal processing ICs. Known for its innovation, quality, and technical excellence, ADI is a trusted brand among engineers across various industries, including precision instrumentation, automotive electronics, industrial automation, and communications.

Product Overview: ADG1606BRUZ

The ADG1606BRUZ is a 16-channel, single-ended analog multiplexer designed for applications that demand fast switching, low on-resistance, and minimal signal distortion. It supports both single and dual power supply configurations, making it highly versatile across a wide range of system designs.

Key Features:

16:1 single-ended multiplexer

Low on-resistance and fast switching performance

Compatible with both single and dual power supplies

Low power consumption

Key Technical Specifications

ParameterDescriptionSupply Voltage Range±2.5 V to ±5.5 V or 5 V to 12 V single supplyOn Resistance (R_ON)4 Ω typicalSwitching Time85 ns (turn-on), 40 ns (turn-off)Signal RangeRail-to-rail analog signal supportChannel IsolationExcellent crosstalk suppressionPackageTSSOP-28 for compact board layoutsOperating Temperature-40°C to +125°C (industrial grade)

These specifications make the ADG1606BRUZ an excellent choice for systems requiring precise, reliable analog signal routing.

Typical Application Scenarios

Thanks to its performance and flexible power compatibility, the ADG1606BRUZ is widely used in:

Data Acquisition Systems (DAQ): Switching multiple sensor inputs

Medical Devices: Channel selection in ultrasound and diagnostic systems

Audio/Video Switching: Low-distortion analog signal routing

Telecommunication Systems: Signal routing and path selection

Industrial Control: Multi-channel analog input switching in PLCs and DCS systems

Comparison with Similar Products

Compared to ADI’s own ADG1608, the ADG1606 offers a higher channel count, making it ideal for designs requiring greater input flexibility. When compared to competing solutions from brands like TI or Maxim, the ADG1606 delivers superior performance in terms of lower on-resistance, better isolation, and faster switching—making it a top choice for high-integrity signal applications.

Selection Tips & Purchasing Information

When designing systems that require switching between multiple analog inputs and a single output, choosing a switch with low on-resistance, high isolation, and fast response is critical. The ADG1606BRUZ checks all these boxes.

Recommended Use Cases for ADG1606BRUZ:

Systems requiring ≥16 analog channels

Space-constrained or portable devices needing low power consumption

Applications powered by ±5V or 10–12V single supplies

For purchasing, samples, or technical support, please reach out to us or visit our [product page].

Conclusion

The ADI ADG1606BRUZ stands out as a highly capable analog switch IC, offering reliability, performance, and versatility in one package. With low on-resistance, wide voltage support, and robust isolation, it's an excellent solution for a broad range of applications—from medical instruments to industrial control.

Have questions about the ADG1606BRUZ or other ADI components? Contact our team for expert assistance or leave a comment below. We’re here to help you find the best solution for your design needs.

Asourcing Electronics Limited is a trusted global supplier of electronic components, dedicated to supporting engineers and manufacturers with reliable sourcing solutions. With a robust inventory and strong partnerships with authorized distributors and original manufacturers, we are proud to offer competitive pricing and steady supply of high-demand components like the ADG1606BRUZ from Analog Devices.

Whether you need small-batch samples or bulk quantities, our experienced sourcing team ensures fast response times, verified quality, and flexible logistics to meet your project deadlines.

In stock or hard-to-find – we get you what you need. Real-time BOM support, technical datasheets, and one-stop procurement services. Trusted by OEMs, EMS providers, and design houses worldwide.

Contact us today for a quote on ADG1606BRUZ or other analog switching solutions.

[thebestechaustralia]

The Essential Guide to Data Acquisition and Signal Conditioning

In today’s data-driven world, industries rely on accurate and reliable data to make informed decisions. Whether in manufacturing, healthcare, or research, data acquisition (DAQ) systems play a crucial role in collecting, analyzing, and interpreting signals from various sources. However, raw signals are often noisy or distorted, necessitating signal conditioning to improve accuracy and reliability. This guide delves into the fundamentals of Data Acquisition and Signal Conditioning, their importance, and how they enhance overall system performance.

What is Data Acquisition (DAQ)?

Data acquisition (DAQ) is the process of collecting and measuring physical or electrical signals from real-world sources such as temperature sensors, pressure transducers, and strain gauges. The primary components of a DAQ system include:

Sensors and Transducers – Convert physical parameters into electrical signals.

Signal Conditioning Units – Process signals to make them suitable for digitization.

Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC) – Convert analog signals into digital data.

Data Processing and Storage – Processed data is stored or transmitted for analysis.

The Importance of Signal Conditioning

Raw signals from sensors often contain noise, interference, and unwanted fluctuations. Signal conditioning is the process of modifying these signals to improve their quality and accuracy before digital conversion. Key functions of signal conditioning include:

Amplification – Boosts weak signals for better detection.

Filtering – Removes unwanted noise and interference.

Isolation – Protects DAQ systems from high voltage spikes and electrical interference.

Linearization – Corrects non-linear responses from certain sensors.

Multiplexing – Enables multiple signals to be processed through a single channel.

Types of Signal Conditioning Techniques

Different applications require different signal conditioning techniques to ensure high-quality data collection. Some of the most common techniques include:

1. Amplification

Amplifiers enhance low-voltage signals from sensors, making them easier to process. This is particularly useful in applications where signals are weak, such as thermocouple readings or biomedical sensors.

2. Filtering

Filters remove unwanted frequencies and noise from signals. Common filter types include:

Low-pass filters – Remove high-frequency noise while preserving useful low-frequency components.

High-pass filters – Eliminate low-frequency disturbances such as DC offsets.

Band-pass filters – Allow only a specific range of frequencies to pass through.

3. Isolation

Isolation prevents interference and protects sensitive components from high voltage or ground loops. Optical isolation and transformer isolation are commonly used to enhance safety and performance.

4. Linearization

Some sensors, like thermocouples, produce non-linear outputs. Linearization techniques correct these deviations to ensure accurate measurements.

Choosing the Right DAQ System

Selecting the right data acquisition system depends on factors such as:

Type of Sensors – Ensure compatibility with input signals.

Sampling Rate – Determines the speed at which data is collected.

Resolution – Higher resolution leads to more precise data representation.

Connectivity Options – USB, Ethernet, or wireless connectivity for seamless data transfer.

Environmental Conditions – Consider factors such as temperature, humidity, and vibration resistance.

Applications of DAQ and Signal Conditioning

These technologies are used across various industries, including:

Manufacturing – Monitoring equipment performance and process control.

Automotive – Testing vehicle components and performance analysis.

Medical and Healthcare – Biomedical signal monitoring and diagnostics.

Aerospace – Aircraft testing and environmental monitoring.

Research and Development – Experimentation and data analysis.

Conclusion

Data acquisition and signal conditioning are fundamental in ensuring accurate, high-quality data collection for industrial, scientific, and research applications. By understanding the principles and best practices behind DAQ systems, businesses and researchers can make more informed decisions, improve operational efficiency, and enhance system reliability. Investing in a well-optimized DAQ system with proper signal conditioning ensures precise and actionable insights for any application.

[sunaleisocial]

New START.nano cohort is developing solutions in health, data storage, power, and sustainable energy

New Post has been published on https://sunalei.org/news/new-start-nano-cohort-is-developing-solutions-in-health-data-storage-power-and-sustainable-energy/

New START.nano cohort is developing solutions in health, data storage, power, and sustainable energy

MIT.nano has announced seven new companies to join START.nano, a program aimed at speeding the transition of hard-tech innovation to market. The program supports new ventures through discounted use of MIT.nano’s facilities and access to the MIT innovation ecosystem.

The advancements pursued by the newly engages startups include wearables for health care, green alternatives to fossil fuel-based energy, novel battery technologies, enhancements in data systems, and interconnecting nanofabrication knowledge networks, among others.

“The transition of the grand idea that is imagined in the laboratory to something that a million people can use in their hands is a journey fraught with many challenges,” MIT.nano Director Vladimir Bulović said at the 2024 Nano Summit, where nine START.nano companies presented their work. The program provides resources to ease startups over the first two hurdles — finding stakeholders and building a well-developed prototype.

In addition to access to laboratory tools necessary to advance their technologies, START.nano companies receive advice from MIT.nano expert staff, are connected to MIT.nano Consortium companies, gain a broader exposure at MIT conferences and community events, and are eligible to join the MIT Startup Exchange.

“MIT.nano has allowed us to push our project to the frontiers of sensing by implementing advanced fabrication techniques using their machinery,” said Uroš Kuzmanović, CEO and founder of Biosens8. “START.nano has surrounded us with exciting peers, a strong support system, and a spotlight to present our work. By taking advantage of all that the program has to offer, BioSens8 is moving faster than we could anywhere else.”

Here are the seven new START.nano participants:

Analog Photonics is developing lidar and optical communications technology using silicon photonics.

Biosens8 is engineering novel devices to enable health ownership. Their research focuses on multiplexed wearables for hormones, neurotransmitters, organ health markers, and drug use that will give insight into the body’s health state, opening the door to personalized medicine and proactive, data-driven health decisions.

Casimir, Inc. is working on power-generating nanotechnology that interacts with quantum fields to create a continuous source of power. The team compares their technology to a solar panel that works in the dark or a battery that never needs to be recharged.

Central Spiral focuses on lossless data compression. Their technology allows for the compression of any type of data, including those that are already compressed, reducing data storage and transmission costs, lowering carbon dioxide emissions, and enhancing efficiency.

FabuBlox connects stakeholders across the nanofabrication ecosystem and resolves issues of scattered, unorganized, and isolated fab knowledge. Their cloud-based platform combines a generative process design and simulation interface with GitHub-like repository building capabilities.

Metal Fuels is converting industrial waste aluminum to onsite energy and high-value aluminum/aluminum-oxide powders. Their approach combines existing mature technologies of molten metal purification and water atomization to develop a self-sustaining reactor that produces alumina of higher value than our input scrap aluminum feedstock, while also collecting the hydrogen off-gas.

PolyJoule, Inc. is an energy storage startup working on conductive polymer battery technology. The team’s goal is a grid battery of the future that is ultra-safe, sustainable, long living, and low-cost.

In addition to the seven startups that are actively using MIT.nano, nine other companies have been invited to join the latest START.nano cohort:

Acorn Genetics

American Boronite Corp.

Copernic Catalysts

Envoya Bio

Helix Carbon

Minerali

Plaid Semiconductors

Quantum Network Technologies

Wober Tech

Launched in 2021, START.nano now comprises over 20 companies and eight graduates — ventures that have moved beyond the initial startup stages and some into commercialization. 

[myrawjcsmicasereports]

 Molecular detection of Hepatits B virus genotypes in tertiary hospitals in Yenagoa, Nigeria by Nwodo Miriam U in Journal of Clinical Case Reports Medical Images and Health Sciences 

Abstract

Despite HBV being endemic or hyper endemic in Africa, there is paucity of data on the genotypes and their distribution in this part of the country. This study is aimed at detecting the prevalent genotypes of HBV among patients attending two tertiary hospitals in Yenagoa, Nigeria. A total of 656 patients [females 475(72.4%) and males 181(27.6%)] were tested for Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) between the period of January to June 2022. Blood samples collected were analyzed using immunochromatography techniques for HBsAg detection and multiplex Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using type-specific primers for genotyping. Of the 656 patients screened for HBsAg, 66 (10%) [36, 5.4% female; 30, 4.6% male] were positive using immunochromatography and were then subjected to molecular genotyping using specific primers to A, B, C, D, E and F. Likewise, 33(50%) were positive using PCR while the remaining showed passive positivity as a result of degradation of the virus being a non-enveloped virus. This finding showed that HBV/E and HBV/B were the major identified genotypes with prevalence of 82.4% and 11.8% respectively in Yenagoa, Bayelsa State. HBV/B+E mixed infections was seen with a prevalence of 5.9%, found amongst 2 female subjects within age group 26-25. In the clinical sector in Yenagoa, tenofovir a nucleotide analog is used. It has been shown from previous studies that HBV E is more sensitive to nucleotide analogs while HBV B is more sensitive to interferon-based therapies. In conclusion, HBV genotypes B, E and B+E were discovered in Yenagoa, Bayelsa State.

Background of the study

The inflamed tissue of the liver is what medical professionals refer to as hepatitis. Some people who have hepatitis do not show any symptoms, while others develop jaundice, which is characterized by a yellow discoloration of the skin and the whites of the eyes, as well as an inability to eat, vomiting, weariness, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. Jaundice can also be caused by cirrhosis, which is characterized by a yellow discoloration of the skin and the whites of the eyes (WHO, 2022). If one has hepatitis and it goes away in less than six months, then you had acute hepatitis; however, if it lasts longer than six months, then one had chronic hepatitis. It is possible for acute hepatitis to clear up on its own, progress into chronic hepatitis, or even (very rarely) result in sudden liver failure. All of these outcomes are possible. Chronic hepatitis can lead to a number of serious complications, including scarring of the liver (sometimes called cirrhosis), liver failure and even cancer of the liver. Viral hepatitis is a term that refers to hepatitis that is caused by infection with any one of a wide variety of hepatotropic viruses (Lamontagne et al., 2016). These viruses include hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E. Hepatitis caused by a virus is a systemic illness that mostly manifests itself in the liver and is distinguished by an inflammation of the liver's primary tissue. These viruses are all RNA viruses, with the exception of the hepatitis B virus (HBV), which is a DNA virus. Other probable causes of hepatitis include: excessive use of alcohol, the use of certain medicines, exposure to chemicals, a variety of infections, autoimmune diseases and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, which is also referred to as NASH (Wang et al., 2012).

Both acute and chronic hepatitis may be brought on by the hepatotropic, enveloped, non-cytopathic HBV virus. It exclusively infects humans and a small number of other primate species, exhibiting a limited host range. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a serious public health concern that can be fatal, even though there is a safe vaccination for it today. This is especially true in Asia, Africa, and South America. The clinical manifestations of HBV infection can range from the asymptomatic carrier state through acute hepatitis, fulminant hepatitis, chronic hepatitis, liver cirrhosis (LC), and hepatocellular cancer (HCC). Genetic traits of the host, viral characteristics, and environmental variables all have a role in the progression of chronic hepatitis B (CHB) illness to severe liver disorders including LC and HCC (Mustafa, 2014). All hepdnaviruses, like HBV, have the same distinct three morphologic forms, counterparts to the HBV envelope and nucleocapsid virus antigens, replicate in the liver but emerge in extrahepatic locations, encompass their own endogenous DNA polymerase, possess partially double-stranded and partly single-stranded genomes, and rely on a replicative strategy that is unique among DNA viruses but typical of opportunistic bacteria. Hepadnaviruses rely on reverse transcription (performed by the DNA polymerase) of minus-strand DNA from a "pregenomic" RNA intermediary rather than DNA replication straight from a DNA template. After that, the DNA-dependent DNA polymerase converts the plus-strand DNA from the minus-strand DNA template into a covalently closed circular DNA in the hepatocyte nucleus, which is used as a blueprint for messenger RNA and pregenomic RNA. The messenger RNA translates viral proteins, which are then packed into virions and released from the hepatocyte together with the viral DNA. Although HBV is challenging to grow in vitro in the traditional sense from clinical material, HBV DNA has been transfected into a number of cell lines. These transfected cells enable the in vitro replication of the whole virus and its constituent proteins (Jules and Kurt, 2012).

Healthcare issues related to hepatitis B are widespread,  particularly in areas with a lower level of economic development. It is estimated that one third of all persons on the earth have the hepatitis B virus in their bodies. (Ahmad et al., 2019) and only 0.5 percent can  spontaneously seroconvert from having the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) to having the hepatitis B surface antibody each year. This means that roughly 350–400 million people are living with a lifetime chronic infection. Chronic hepatitis B infection can lead to liver cirrhosis (LC) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), however cirrhosis only develops in a tiny fraction of individuals. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) development and on occasion cirrhosis, are side effects of hepatitis B. Numerous dermatologic, cardiac, joint, neurologic, hematologic, and gastrointestinal (GI) tract symptoms are observed, along with glomerulonephritis and polyarthritis nodes. Since the 1970s, significant progress has been achieved in the areas of knowledge relevant to the epidemiology, virology, natural history, and treatment of the hepatitis B virion, which is a hepatotropic viral particle. These areas of study concern the infectious agent that causes hepatitis B. In addition, it has been demonstrated that continuing vaccination programs are effective in reducing the prevalence of HBV disease in a number of different nations around the world (Anna, 2014).

The virus can be transmitted by exposure to infectious blood or body fluids (through child birth or from contact with other people’s blood). Intravenous drug use, tattooing, acupuncture, blood transfusion, dialysis, sexual intercourse are the most frequent routes of infection. The virus cannot be spread by holding hands, sharing eating utensils, kissing, hugging, coughing, sneezing or breastfeeding (CDC, 2015)

Recent studies have led to the discovery of eleven different HBV genotypes (A through J), each of which is found in a specific region of the world. To correctly classify a person's genotype, the differences in their genome sequence must be at least 8%. E is the genotype that is found in the most people in Sub-Saharan Africa, followed by A and D. Genotype D is the one that occurs the least frequently. Both the clinical outcome and the patient's response to therapy based on interferon are significantly influenced by the HBV genotype. Interferon-based therapy is one such example. In spite of the fact that genotypes A and B have higher rates of spontaneous HBeAg seroconversion in comparison to genotypes C and D, infections with HBV genotypes A and D typically progress further into the chronic phase than infections with HBV genotypes B and C do. This is due to the fact that infections with HBV genotypes A and D have a higher risk of developing hepatocellular carcinoma. The HBV genotype E that is most prevalent in West Africa is only marginally related to pre-core and basal core promoter alterations, and it also has a poor response to interferon-based therapy. This genotype is responsible for the majority of HBV infections in the region. Additionally, recent investigations conducted elsewhere have revealed rare HBV mixed genotype infections, which may indicate similar clinical results Additionally, recent investigations conducted elsewhere have revealed rare HBV mixed genotype infections, which may indicate similar clinical results (Ahmad et al., 2019).

Aim: This study was aimed to pinpoint the HBV genotypes that are most common in Yenagoa, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area

Between Delta state and Rivers state, in the central Niger Delta region of Southern Nigeria, sits the state of Bayelsa. On October 1, 1996, the military regime of General Sani Abacha separated the state from Rivers state. Eight Local Government Areas make up the state of Bayelsa. The mainstay of the economy in the state the government. The state is heterogeneous in nature with cultural varieties among the inhabitants in Sagbama and Ekeremor; Ogbia, Nembe, Brass and Yenagoa, Kolokuma-Opokuma and Southern Ijaw respectively. There are eight local government in Bayelsa state which include: Yenagoa, Ogbia, Brass, Nembe, Kolokuma/Opokuma, Southern Ijaw, Sagbama and Ekeremor local government. While Yenagoa stood as the capital of Bayelsa state. The population of Bayelsa state is put at about 1.7million people as at the 2006 census. Geographically, Bayelsa state is on latitude 04o151North, 05o231South and longitude 05o221West and 06o451East. The state is bounded with Delta State on the North, Rivers State on the East and the Atlantic Ocean on the West and South as shown in. This work was carried out in two selected health facilities in Yenagoa, Bayelsa State between the period of January and June, 2021.  Most people residing in Bayelsa state are government workers. Other occupation of the people in the state includes: farming, trading and as well fishing.

Study Population

All patients that are sent to the laboratory to test for HBsAg make up the study population.

Ethical Approval

A letter of approval was issued by the H.O.D of the department of Medical Laboratory Science NDU, which was presented to the  Ethics and research Committee of the Federal Medical Centre  and  Niger Delta University Teaching Hospital in Bayelsa state after which their approval for this study was given.

Inclusion criteria

All patients who present themselves to the laboratory department for HBsAg test and those attending the gastroenterology clinics of both hospitals were recruited for this research.

Exclusion criteria

All patients who are not running HBsAg test at the laboratory department and those not attending the gastroenterology clinics of both hospitals were excluded from this study. Also those who rejected verbal consent were excluded.

Sample Collection

For this analysis, 4mls of whole blood sample was collected from each patient into ethylene diaminetetra-acetic acid bottle and centrifuged at 3000rpm for 5 min to separate the plasma. Plasma was used for screening of HBsAg, HIV and HCV while the red cells were taken to the molecular laboratory in NDU in ice packs for DNA extraction and genotyping.

 Sample processing

Using a Surge-lab rapid immuno-chromatographic test strip, the HBsAg status of all samples was confirmed after initial immuno-chromatographic testing for HCV and HIV to rule out those conditions. After that, the separated plasma was put into plain bottles and refrigerated at -4°C until analysis. The whole blood was also stored at 40°C for extraction.

Laboratory Methods and Procedures

HBsAg Status Determination

The HBsAg status was determined using skytec test kits according to manufacturer’s instructions following WHO standard alogarithm (WHO, 2015).

Test Procedure

The test card's protective foil cover was taken off, and 50ul of plasma was put to the sample pad before being allowed to flow. After 15 minutes, the result was read.

HCV Status Determination

The Hcv status was determined using skytec test kits according to manufacturer’s instructions following WHO standard alogarithm (WHO, 2015).

Test Procedure

The test card's protective foil cover was taken off, and 50ul of plasma was put to the sample pad before being allowed to flow. After 15 minutes, the result was read.

HIV Status Determination

The HIV status was determined using Determine test kits according to manufacturer’s instructions following WHO testing allogarithm (WH0, 2015)

Test Procedure

The test card's protective foil cover was taken off,  50ul of whole blood  was applied to the sample pad along with one drop of chase buffer. Results were read 15 to 60 minutes later.

HBV 5 panel test

Test Procedure

The test device was removed from its pouch and place on a flat surface.5µl of plasma was dispensed into the sample pad for each of the 5 viral markers. Result were read after 10 minutes.

The process of extracting DNA from a blood sample

A total volume of 100 uL of blood was treated with 400 uL of the Genomic Lysis Buffer. After that, it was thoroughly combined by vortexing for four to six seconds, and then it was permitted to sit at room temperature for five to ten minutes. After that, the mixture was moved to a Zymo-Spin IIC Column that was contained inside of a collecting Tube. The centrifuge was set to 10,000 x g, and it ran for one whole minute. It was decided to throw away the Collection Tube that had the flow through. The Zymo-Spin IIC Column was subsequently moved to a different Collection Tube after the move. After adding 200 ul of DNA Pre-Wash Buffer to the spin column, it was then centrifuged at a speed of 10,000 x g for a period of one minute. After adding 500 uL of g-DNA Wash Buffer to the spin column, it was then subjected to one minute of centrifugation at 10,000 x g. After that, the spin column was moved to a microcentrifuge tube that had been cleaned. The spin column received an additional 50 uL of DNA Elution Buffer. After that, it was allowed to sit at room temperature for two to five minutes before being centrifuged at maximum speed (10,000xg) for thirty seconds in order to extract the DNA. The eluted DNA was kept frozen at a temperature of -20 degrees Celsius for later usage.

DNA Quantification

Using the Nanodrop 1000 spectrophotometer, the genomic DNA that had been extracted was measured and analyzed. The software of the apparatus was activated by performing a double click on the Nanodrop icon on the desktop. The apparatus was calibrated using 2 ul of sterile distilled water, and then it was blanked with normal saline solution. Following the transfer of two microliters of the extracted DNA to the lower pedestal, the DNA on the lower pedestal was brought into contact with the DNA on the upper pedestal by lowering the upper pedestal. The amount of DNA in the sample was determined by selecting the "measure" button on the toolbar. While the level of DNA purity was assessed by the 260/280 absorbance ratio, DNA concentration was quantified in ng/ul (ranging from 5 to 100 ng/ul) (1.5 – 2.0).

Multiplex‑nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

This was done using type‑specific primers used to assign genotypes A through F based on pre‑S1 through S genes of the HBV genome.

First round polymerase chain reaction: Hepatitis B virus DNA detection.

During the initial round of the nested PCR, the total volume of the reaction that was carried out was 20 L. The sample ID was written on the label of each of the premix tubes. After the DNA was extracted, it was put into a Master Mix, which consisted of a cocktail of 16 uL of deionized water [D.H2O] and a premix of 250 M of each dNTP, 1X PCR buffer, 15 mM of MgCl2, and 1U of thermostable Taq polymerase, along with 1uL of P1 (forward) and S1 2 (reverse) outer primers in equal amounts. The PCR was carried out with a thermal cycler, and the reaction conditions were as follows: initial activation at 95 degrees Celsius for five minutes; denaturation at 94 degrees Celsius for twenty seconds; annealing at 60 degrees Celsius for thirty seconds; and extension at 72 degrees Celsius for one minute. The temperature of the first six cycles was lowered by a total of –0.50 C, while the temperature of the subsequent 29 cycles was maintained at 570 C. There were a total of 35 whole cycle sets that were observed, going from denaturation through extension. The third and final extension was carried out at 72 degrees Celsius for five minutes.

Second‑round polymerase chain reaction: Hepatitis B virus genotyping

The second round of PCR was carried out in two separate tubes for each sample. The first tube contained the common universal sense primer (B2) and type specific primers for the genotypes A, B, and C. The second tube contained the common universal anti sense primer (B2R) and genotype specific primers for the genotypes D, E, and F. The second round of PCR was carried out in two different tubes for each sample. Each tube containing premix 'A' and 'B' received an additional 17 uL of water that had been distilled. The mixes each received an additional 0.5 ul of each of the four primers, which brought the total volume to 2 ul of primers total. 1 u of the product of the first PCR round should be added to each tube of the premix. After being stirred carefully, the mixture was centrifuged. The PCR conditions were kept the same as before. After running 20 uL of each of the negative control, samples, and the ladder across an agarose gel containing 2%, the gel was then electrophoresed in a buffer containing 1 x TAE for 45 minutes at 100V.

    Primer Sequence (5’‑3’) Specificity Position Polarity

Agarose Gel Electrophoresis

On a 1% agarose gel prepared in 1X Tri-Boris EDTA containing 5ls of 'Safe View,' the amplicons were measured against a 100bp molecular weight marker. The gel was then run in a horizontal tank filled with 1X Tri-Boris EDTA for 30 minutes at 350V. Under a blue light transillumination, each gel was examined with the PrepOneTM Sapphire EC135-90. Electrophoresis was performed at a voltage of 100 mV for a period of 30 minutes. We were able to determine the size of the bands as well as the fragment size by comparing the bands to a DNA ladder that was 100 kb or longer.

Analyses of statistical data

The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21 was utilized in order to perform the analysis on the data that was gathered from this study. Chi-square tests were used to make comparisons between the variables. A statistically significant p-value was determined to be lower than 0.05. Tables, pie charts, and percentage breakdowns were used to show the findings.

RESULTS

Demographic presentation of participants

Of a total of 656 subjects screened for HBsAg, 475 (72.4%) were females while their male counterpart had 181 (27.6%) participants. The age distribution revealed that 301 (45.9%) were aged 26-35, 120 (18.3%) were aged 36-45, 118 (18.0%) were within 16-25 and 49 (7.5%) were >56. 38 (5.8%) and 30 (4.6%) were within 46-55 and  less than 15 respectively.

Of the 656 participants, 66 (10%) were positive to HBsAg with females having 36 (5.4%) positive subjects and 439 (66.9%) negative. Male participants had 30 (4.6%) positive subjects with 151 (23.0%) negative which were not included for further studies.

Distribution of HBV using the 5-panel testing kit

The median age for the 66 positive HBsAg participants were 31 (26-35) years of which 36 (54.6%) were female while males were 30 (44.5%). Age group 26-45 had 37 (5.6%) positive participants followed by 36-45 with 14 (2.1%), then 16-25 with 9 (1.4%). 0-15 had 2 (0.3%) followed by ≥56 with 1 (0.1%).

Of the 66 positive HBV patients, 34 (51.5%) were female while male was 32 (48.5%). Age group 26-35 had 38 (57.6%) followed by 16-25 with 11 (16.7%) then 36-45 with 10 (15.2%).  Age groups 16-25 and 36-45 both had 11 (16.7%) and 10 (15.2%) respectively while 0-15 and ≥56 had 2 (3.0%) each.

All the 66 were negative for HBsAb as well as HBeAg. For HBeAb age group 26-35 had 4 (6.1%) negative followed by age group 16-25 with 3(4.6%), ≥ 56 with 1(1.5%) and then 0-15 with 46-55 both had zero respectively.

For HBcAb only age group 26-35 had one negative with 1.5%.

HBV genotypes.

34 (51.5%) of the 66 samples that tested positive for HBsAg also tested positive for HBV-DNA. Participants in the study who tested positive for HBsAg and HBV-DNA have bands representing their genotypes visible on the electrophoretogram. The primers' Mix 'A' bands were displayed below, and Mix 'B' bands were displayed on the second gel. In Mix "A," genotypes B were found with band sizes of 281, and in Mix "B," genotypes E were found with band sizes of 167 bp. The marker for identification was a molecular ladder (L) of 100 plus base pairs (100 bp+).

Distribution of HBV genotype by age and gender

Amongst the 34 HBV-DNA positive samples it could be seen that in Yenagoa 28 (82.4%) subjects had HBV E genotype while HBV B and HBV B + E mixed infection had 4 (11.8%) and 2 (5.9%) respectively. There were more male participants with 19 (55.9%) to females with 15 (44.1%).

     Distribution of HBV genotypes by age and gender

Comparison of HBV serology (HBsAg) and PCR

It can be seen from the table below, that not all samples that were positive for HBsAg were positive for HBV PCR. Out of 66 positive HBsAg samples only 34 (51.5%) were HBV-DNA positive out of which males were 16 (28.8%) while females were 15 (22.7%).

COMPARISION OF HBV serology (HBsAg) and PCR

Discussion

Nigeria has achieved great strides in each of the four areas of the WHO's four-pronged strategy, which it adopted in 2010 to acknowledge viral hepatitis as a problem of international health. These include keeping tabs on cancer cases linked to hepatitis, creating national guidelines for healthcare workers' infection control, enforcing the vaccine requirement, and screening all donated blood. The strategy was adopted to acknowledge viral hepatitis as a global health problem. On the other hand, there are no national policies in place to prevent infections from being passed down from mothers to children or to eradicate HBV; this is perhaps reflected in the findings of Musa et al., 2015, in which it was revealed that between 2000 and 2013, 14% of Nigerians were exposed to HBV. According to this estimation, Nigeria is among the nations with the highest prevalence of the disease, making it extremely endemic not just in Africa but also worldwide. This study places the prevalence of HBV in Yenagoa at 10% (table 4.2), and this result is consistent with that of Olayinka et al., (2016), who estimated that 12.2% of people have HBV. This high incidence may have certain explanations, some of which include the facts that HBV infection is not a disease that is widely identified in Africa, that infections are subclinical, and that there is a substantial length of time before the effects of chronic carrying become apparent.

An infection with hepatitis B is a condition that can be prevented by receiving a vaccination. When Nigeria's national vaccination schedule was updated in 1995, the vaccine was added, and it became available to the general public in 2004. As can be seen in table 4.1, the participants in this research project ranged in age from 1 year to 31.0 years, with the median age falling somewhere in the range of 31.0 to 35.0 years.

According to the findings of this research, the prevalence of HBV was higher among female participants than among male participants. This contradicts the findings of past study that suggested men were more prone to infection than women because of the qualities associated with being a man. According to Vilibic et al., 2014, this finding is another evidence that sexual activity and HBV infection are not related to one another.

According to Frank-Peterside and Ayodele in 2016, the higher female to male ratio could be explained by the fact that more females than men visit hospitals for medical care. This may be connected to the high proportion of female participants found in this study as it may be related to the fact that hospital visits by patients are more common among women than men. Despite the fact that there was no significant correlation between gender and HBsAg positivity, sexual orientation has been demonstrated to be a significant risk factor for HBsAg positivity (Frank-Peterside and Ayodele, 2016).

The highest prevalence of HBsAg to age group as shown in this study was between age group 26-35 with frequency of 37 (5.6%) followed by 36-45 with 14 (2.1%) as shown in Table 4.3, this is also in agreement with Frank-Peterside and Ayodele in 2016 where the highest frequency was recorded in age group 31-40 and 20-30 years and attributed to high and unsafe sexual activities among people within these age groups (Frank-Peterside and Ayodele, 2016). Additionally, it has been stated that Nigerians in their third decade of life use intravenous drugs at high rates, this could be another reason for the high prevalence of HBV infection within this age group. Needle-stick injuries and reusable razor blades can also be a major predisposing factor.

The disappearance of HBeAg or appearance of HBeAb in serum does not completely rule out chronic HBV carrier state or infectivity. From this study and the above table, it can be seen that all the patients recruited for this study were in the chronic phase of the infection

HBcAb is the first detectable antibody in the course of HBV disease a positive reaction is an indication of acute, past or recurrent infection and usually persist for life (Kahila et al., 2012). In this study only one subject within age group 26-25 was negative for HBcAb which is an indication of an already cleared HBV infection.

Despite PCR being the second-gold standard to sequencing 51.5% (34/66) of the samples used in this investigation were able to show the presence of HBV infection and have its genotype determined. This might be the result of sample storage (deterioration) prior to analysis, sensitivity of the primers, or something unrelated to the technique. No matter the method of detection, Ahmad et al., 2019 found that the different methodologies applied maintained the variability in HBV‑DNA isolation in relation to HBsAg positivity, in that not all HBsAg‑positive samples yielded positive results for HBV‑DNA detection, irrespective of the method of detection. This is due to the fact that HBV is an unencapsulated virus, its DNA tends to break down quickly. A contributing element might also be the stage of the illness, as in the case of individuals who have been long-term carriers of an inactive infection. Additionally, it might be brought on by sporadic viraemia or relatively low and undetectable HBV-DNA levels as a result of prior therapy or natural clearance.

Multiplex PCR was used because it has higher accuracy (93.2%) as compared to the RFLP method (87%), it is rapid, simple and cost effective. It can be used on large population of study/samples. This method can detect mixed genotypes with sensitivity for detecting minor species as low as 10%.

Sequencing, INNO-LiPA, multiplex PCR, oligonucleotide microarray chips, restriction fragmentation polymorphism, reverse dot blot, serotyping, invasion assay, and real time PCR are a few of the genotyping techniques for HBV that have been developed. Each is unique from the others in terms of sensitivity, specificity, cost, and time.

Out of the 34HBsAg-positive samples, 32 (94.1%) had a single genotype infection, while the remaining 2 (5.9%) had a mixed HBV genotype of E and B infection. According to the trend of infections, genotype E was more common, with 27 infections (79.4%), while genotype B mono infections were less common, with 4 infections (11.7%).

Utilizing the multiple-nested PCR technology, which has a high accuracy rate of 93%, increased sensitivity for the detection of mixed genotypes, cost-effectiveness for large populations, and simplicity of use(Hamida et al., 2021), we concentrated on the six primary genotypes (A-F) among patients in this investigation.

Single genotype was found to have a 94.1% (32/34) to 5.9% (2/34) advantage over mixed infection. This is in consistent with Hamida's findings from Eritrea, where single genotype D infection was most prevalent, and with a study from Egypt, where 87% of patients were found to have single-genotype infection (Khaled et al., 2011). Contrary to a study conducted in Zaria, Nigeria, where multiple mixed infections with genotype E combination comprised 82.6% of the population, this study shows that single genotype accounts for a larger proportion of the population. Chronic hepatitis B patients with multiple genotype infections had greater viral levels as compared to people with a single genotype. According to Coa, 2009, they also have greater in vitro HBV replication rates (Coa, 2009).

Furthermore, this study was able to establish that genotype E, genotype B, and combination HBV/B + E infection were the most common genotypes in this part of Nigeria. This validates research by Ahmad et al., 2019  showing genotype E was the more prevalent genotype in Nigeria.

Patients with HBV B infections who are young and have fulminant hepatitis are more likely to experience a recurrence of HCC. The HBV B genotype also exhibits sluggish seroclearance, although seroconversion is more frequent and is associated with a better response to interferon-based therapy in chronic hepatitis (Coa, 2009). The therapeutic significance of genotype E is little understood, but it has been claimed that this genotype is the most challenging to cure and necessitates a longer term of medication (Mustafa, 2014).

Conclusions

This study indicates that HBV is quite prevalent in Nigeria. It highlights the importance of raising awareness, developing policies to avoid mother-to-child transmission and providing all children and adults who have not yet contracted the disease with a universal immunization. This study also illustrates the prevalence of HBsAg overall and the genotype that predominates in Yenagoa. Yenagoa has a 10% prevalence of HBV, with genotype E being the most common with 82.4% of cases, HBV/B coming in second with 11.8%, and combined HBV B+E infections coming in next with 5.9%.

Recommendation

Therefore, it is reasonable to predict that the efficient application of interventions like early immunization and screening of high-risk people might considerably lower the burden of HBV while simultaneously improving Nigeria's socioeconomic indicators.

Contribution to knowledge

This study has portrayed the overall prevalence of HBsAg in Yenagoa as well as its predominant genotype.

It has also portrayed the importance of HBV genotypes which should be incorporated into testing algorithm for HBV screening and treatment.

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Let's dive into the basics of digital systems! Here's a quick overview:

Digital Systems Fundamentals

Binary Numbers: Digital systems operate on binary numbers, which use only two digits, 0 and 1. Each binary digit is called a bit. Larger numbers are represented by combining multiple bits.

Logic Gates: These are the building blocks of digital systems. Common logic gates include AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, and XNOR. Each gate performs a specific logical operation on one or more input signals to produce an output signal.

Combinational Logic Circuits: These circuits output results based solely on the current inputs, without involving any memory elements. Examples include adders, multiplexers, decoders, and encoders.

Sequential Logic Circuits: Unlike combinational circuits, sequential circuits have memory elements (like flip-flops) and their output depends on both the current inputs and previous states. Examples include counters, shift registers, and finite state machines.

Flip-Flops and Latches: These are basic memory elements used in sequential circuits. Flip-flops store a single bit of data and change state based on clock signals. Common types include SR, D, JK, and T flip-flops.

Registers: A collection of flip-flops used to store multi-bit values. Registers are essential for storing intermediate data during processing.

Counters: Special types of registers that go through a predetermined sequence of states. They can count up, count down, or count in a specific pattern.

Multiplexers (MUX) and Demultiplexers (DEMUX): Multiplexers select one of many inputs to pass to the output based on control signals. Demultiplexers do the opposite, taking one input and routing it to one of many outputs.

Analog to Digital Converters (ADC) and Digital to Analog Converters (DAC): These devices convert analog signals to digital form and vice versa. AD converters sample analog signals and represent them as binary numbers, while DA converters do the reverse.

Why They Matter

Understanding digital systems is fundamental for designing and working with any kind of electronic device. Whether it's computers, smartphones, or embedded systems, the principles of digital logic underpin their operation.

Do you have any specific topics you want to explore further?

[techtease]

PiSquare: RP2040 & ESP-12E-based board for all Raspberry Pi HATs

PiSquare is a compact, wireless communication board designed for Raspberry Pi that enables you to wirelessly connect and communicate with multiple Raspberry Pi HATs including SPI, I2C, and SPI HATs. It is based on two powerful components:

⦁ The RP2040 microcontroller (the same chip used in the Raspberry Pi Pico). ⦁ The ESP-12E Wi-Fi module for seamless wireless communication.

By using socket programming, PiSquare can wirelessly interact with Raspberry Pi HATs through TCP/IP communication, allowing you to connect as many devices as you need, without worrying about physical stacking or GPIO conflicts.

Key Specifications:

⦁ Microcontroller: Raspberry Pi RP2040

Core Architecture: Dual-core ARM Cortex-M0+ microcontroller

Clock Speed: Up to 133 MHz

Flash Memory: 2MB onboard QSPI Flash (for program storage)

RAM: 264KB SRAM

GPIO Pins: 26 multi-function GPIO pins with support for PWM, SPI, I2C, UART, and other peripherals

⦁ Wi-Fi Connectivity: ESP-12E

Wi-Fi Standard: 802.11 b/g/n

Wireless Frequency: 2.4 GHz

Wi-Fi Chipset: ESP8266 (with 4MB of onboard Flash)

Data Rate: Up to 72.2 Mbps (with 802.11n support)

Communication Interface: UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter)

⦁ Wireless Communication via Socket Programming

Protocol: TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) via socket programming

Connection Type: Full-duplex, bi-directional communication

Network Type: Local Area Network (LAN) or Wi-Fi based network for device communication

Number of Supported Devices: Configurable for communication with multiple (n) Raspberry Pi HATs over Wi-Fi without the need for physical stacking

Socket Layer: Raw socket-based communication for sending and receiving data over the network

⦁ HAT Compatibility

Supported Protocols: SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface): Full-duplex, synchronous communication for connecting peripherals

I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit): Multi-master, multi-slave communication for sensors, actuators, and peripheral devices

GPIO-based HATs: Supports a variety of devices and sensors with GPIO pin control

Pin Multiplexing: Flexible I/O pin assignment allowing for easy configuration of multiple communication protocols simultaneously

Addressing: Supports unique addressing for SPI and I2C devices to avoid conflicts

⦁ Power Supply

Voltage: 5V DC ±5% (typical operating voltage range)

Power Consumption: Low-power operation suitable for remote or battery-powered applications

Regulation: Onboard linear voltage regulator to provide stable power for the microcontroller and Wi-Fi module

⦁ Form Factor

Dimensions: 65mm x 30mm x 20mm (compact design suitable for integration into small devices)

Mounting: Compatible with standard Raspberry Pi connectors (via external interface) without the need for physical GPIO stacking

⦁ I/O and Expansion

Interface: UART, SPI, I2C (for communication with external peripherals)

GPIO: 26 GPIO pins for signal input/output, including support for digital, analog, PWM, and interrupts

Use Cases

Here are a few ways PiSquare can revolutionize your Raspberry Pi projects:

Multi-HAT Robotics: Easily connect multiple HATs for motor control, sensor arrays, and communication modules in a wireless setup.

IoT Projects: PiSquare can communicate with several sensor HATs in remote locations, sending data back to a central Raspberry Pi for processing or cloud storage.

Home Automation: Connect a variety of home automation HATs wirelessly, creating a smart home system that’s efficient and scalable.

Distributed Sensor Networks: Set up multiple sensors across a large area without worrying about physical connections or pin conflicts.

The Pisquare RP2040 with the onboard ESP-12E Wi-Fi module is a powerful and compact solution for anyone looking to build wireless IoT projects. Its support for multiple HATs, including SPI and I2C, makes it versatile enough to handle a wide variety of peripherals, while its ability to implement socket programming provides you with the flexibility to create robust networked applications.

Whether you're creating a smart home system, an industrial IoT device, or a robotics project, the Pisquare by SB Components can be the perfect foundation for your next creation.

[ariatelecomsolutions]

SIP to PRI Converter: Bridging Modern VoIP and Traditional Telephony for Seamless Connectivity

As businesses upgrade to IP-based communications, the need for reliable interoperability between traditional phone systems and VoIP networks is more important than ever. A SIP to PRI converter plays a critical role in this transition, allowing organizations to connect modern Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)-based systems with legacy PRI (Primary Rate Interface) systems. The SIP to PRI converter serves as a bridge, enabling businesses to make calls across IP and traditional networks without replacing existing infrastructure. For call centers, enterprises, and other customer-focused organizations, this converter provides a cost-effective, scalable solution for smoother connectivity and consistent call quality.

What is a SIP to PRI Converter?

A SIP to PRI converter is a device that connects SIP-based VoIP systems with traditional PRI-based telecommunication systems. It essentially converts SIP (used in modern IP telephony) to PRI, which uses a time-division multiplexing approach over a dedicated line, providing up to 23 channels per line for concurrent calls. By acting as an intermediary, the SIP to PRI converter allows businesses to leverage the benefits of IP telephony without fully discarding their established PRI systems.

This converter is especially useful in scenarios where organizations are gradually migrating to VoIP or are unable to replace their existing PRI-based systems due to cost or infrastructure constraints. The SIP to PRI converter provides flexibility, enabling these businesses to adopt VoIP without compromising communication quality.

Key Benefits of a SIP to PRI Converter

Using a SIP to PRI converter offers several advantages that make it an ideal choice for businesses seeking flexibility in their communication systems:

Cost Savings: With a SIP to PRI converter, businesses can transition to IP-based communications without needing to replace their entire PRI setup. This hybrid approach saves money by using existing infrastructure while gaining the cost efficiency of VoIP for long-distance and international calls.

Scalability: SIP offers flexible scalability, allowing businesses to add lines as needed without the physical limitations of PRI. By integrating a SIP to PRI converter, organizations can expand their call capacity with ease as their communication needs grow.

Improved Call Quality and Reliability: PRI is known for its reliable call quality, while VoIP can offer cost savings and advanced features. With a SIP to PRI converter, businesses get the best of both worlds—high-quality calls over PRI for local communication and affordable VoIP for broader outreach.

Centralized Management: SIP to PRI converters often come with management interfaces, making it easier to monitor, manage, and troubleshoot calls. This centralized management helps IT teams maintain a smooth operation without added complexity.

Seamless Integration with Legacy Systems: For businesses that have invested heavily in PRI infrastructure, a SIP to PRI converter allows for the gradual adoption of VoIP while keeping existing systems intact. This interoperability is critical for organizations that require continuity and cannot afford downtime or significant infrastructure overhauls.

How a SIP to PRI Converter Works in a Business Setting

A SIP to PRI converter operates as an interface between a business’s VoIP network and its traditional PRI-based phone system. By converting digital SIP signals to the TDM (Time-Division Multiplexing) format used in PRI, the converter enables calls to flow between IP phones and analog systems seamlessly. For example, a call center using VoIP for long-distance calls but relying on PRI for local lines can handle both call types without interruptions or additional equipment.

Additionally, the SIP to PRI converter allows businesses to take advantage of VoIP’s advanced features, like call routing, auto-attendants, and unified communications, even on traditional PRI lines. As a result, businesses can use their existing equipment more efficiently while gradually integrating newer, IP-based technologies.

Choosing the Right SIP to PRI Converter

When selecting a SIP to PRI converter for your business, there are several factors to consider:

Capacity Requirements: Determine the number of channels needed to support your call volume. Some converters support a single PRI line, while others can handle multiple lines for higher capacity.

Compatibility: Ensure that the SIP to PRI converter is compatible with your existing IP-PBX or VoIP system, as well as with the PRI network. Compatibility will ensure smooth integration and reduce the need for troubleshooting.

Security Features: VoIP systems can be vulnerable to cyber threats, so look for a converter that includes robust security features, such as encryption, to protect your communication lines.

Ease of Management: Look for a converter with an intuitive interface and monitoring capabilities, allowing your IT team to manage and troubleshoot calls effectively.

By carefully selecting a SIP to PRI converter that fits your business’s specific needs, you can create a unified communication system that supports both modern IP and traditional telephony, enhancing flexibility and future-proofing your infrastructure.

[moorheadthanyoucanhandle]

GRANT US PEACE

Opening in the multiplexes this weekend:

Heretic--One rainy day two American LDS missionaries, young women, go to the door of an ugly, rambling house in Scotland. The resident is what would be called, in door to door sales, a premium lead: he's expressed interest in the product.

The gent in question, Mr. Reed (Hugh Grant), solicitously invites the young ladies in out of the rain. They explain that, for safety's sake, they aren't allowed to go inside without a woman present, but he charmingly insists, saying that his wife will join them once she's finished baking a blueberry pie in the kitchen. So Sister Paxton (Chloe East) and Sister Barnes (Sophie Thatcher) follow him into the oddly cheerless front sitting room--it looks like the waiting room of a funeral parlor--and he locks the door behind them. But they can smell blueberry pie, so they aren't too alarmed, yet.

Needless to say, the two of them aren't going anywhere anytime soon, except farther into the house. This shocker, co-written and co-directed by Scott Beck and Bryan Woods of A Quiet Place, belongs to the horror subgenre in which one or more women are held prisoner by a maniac. Earlier examples include The Collector (1965), with Terence Stamp and Samatha Eggar, Crawlspace (1986) with Klaus Kinski tormenting Talia Balsam, the notorious Human Centepede (First Sequence) (2009) by Tom Six, or Room (2015) with Brie Larson. Heretic has echoes of all of these, but it's highly original all the same.

Although it seems to safe to say that there's a sexual subtext to the motivations of all the captors in these movies, the overt reasons vary. In The Collector, for instance, there's a class element; in Crawlspace there's a Nazi guilt angle, and so on. In Heretic, the crazy derives from religious studies.

Mr. Reed, you see, is a fanatical questioner of all religious "iterations," and debunker of the idea that any of them represent the "one true religion" as they claim to. As the facade that his guests are free to leave whenever they like gradually but steadily melts away, he lectures them, in the manner of a raffish college professor, about the innumerable links and parallels between modern mainstream faiths and ancient religious traditions, using pop culture and popular music as analogies.

It would be a rather agreeably stimulating summary of Comparative Religion 101, if they weren't being held hostage and all. Sister Paxton even makes a brave attempt to debate her self-appointed pedagogue, but while there may be arguments against Mr. Reed's theses, the ones Beck and Woods place in her mouth seem thin and non-sequitur, which, in context, makes her desperation all the more touching. Mr. Reed, however, remains affably unmoved.

The heart of Heretic is Grant. I've always been a fan, but I've especially enjoyed his work as a comic villain in recent years in stuff like Paddington 2, Dungeons & Dragons: Honor Among Thieves and Operation Fortune: Ruse de Guerre. His Mr. Reed is a good deal darker than any of these, to be sure, but the performance is still based in the diffident, apologetic, wryly sheepish Grant persona familiar from his romcom work. It's one of the best roles he's ever had, and you can feel his pleasure in it.

His two young costars are also strong. Chloe East, hilarious and adorable as the girlfriend in Spielberg's The Fabelmans, gives Sister Paxton some of the same gushy avidity. Balancing her is Sophie Thatcher as Sister Barnes, of more worldly background and thus more reserved and alert. Thatcher also sings a haunting cover of "Knockin' on Heaven's Door" over the end titles.

Eventually Sister Barnes and Sister Paxton are offered a "Lady or the Tiger" type of choice, and find themselves in the basement. From here, Heretic goes full-on gothic, and gory, and the blueberry pie re-enters the tale. And as so often when thrillers tip over from literate tension into gruesome grappling, it seems to shrink the movie a bit.

Not enough, however, to diminish the value of these performances, or of the rising dread, shot through with chilling wit, that infuses the film. The sexual politics would seem to have some slight relevance at this moment in our history, too; Mr. Reed's practice of what he considers the One True Religion appears to be devout, zealous mansplaining.

By the way, as we left the press screening I attended in the Valley, the marketing company handed us small blueberry pies, custom made for the evening by Süss Pastries here in Phoenix. I took mine home and passed it on The Wife, who proclaimed it good. I can't say, however, that Heretic particularly gave me an appetite for blueberry pie for a bit.