#Mameluke Ali

[microcosme11]

The Emperor might pick up the book you're reading and throw it in the fire

[Translation by google and me]

At the Tuileries, in each room of the apartments there were valets and waiters. Among the latter were young people who had been at school. These young men, to pass the time and distract themselves from the boredom of hanging around the salon, amused themselves by reading. It sometimes happened that, when they least expected it, the Emperor appeared. The book was immediately put aside, but sometimes it was forgotten on an armchair or another piece of furniture. If the book fell under the eyes of the Emperor, he would take it and leaf through it. If it was a good book, he would put it back on the piece of furniture where he had found it, but if it was bad, he would show strong dissatisfaction that someone had permitted himself to read such books in his domicile. I don't know whether he didn't throw them into the fire. He didn't want to see anything in his apartments that would hurt anyone's eyes. So these young people were careful not to leave their books lying around, especially those that were contrary to good morals.

Souvenirs du mameluck Ali (Louise-Étienne Saint Denis) sur l'empereur Napoléon by Louis-Etienne Saint-Denis

[rit3rk]

Louis Comfort Tiffany On the Way between Old and New Cairo, Citadel Mosque of Mohammed Ali, and Tombs of the Mamelukes, c. 1872 — with Amol Surryawanshi and 8 others in Cairo, Egypt.

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7You, सुधीर सुधीर, Abu Ali and 4 others

[ramadhanseries]

தமிழில்

What happened on the 13th day of Ramadan throughout history?

▪️On the thirteenth day of Ramadan, Omar bin al-Khattab arrived in Jerusalem in 15th Hijri (AH). He performed Friday prayers at the Gyooshi Mosque in Mount Mokattam in 484 AH.

▪️Muhammad Ali Pasha died in 1256 AH, and member of Egypt’s Revolutionary Command Council, Salah Salem, died in 1381 AH.

➖Omar bin al-Khattab

On this day of the year 15 AH, Omar bin al-Khattab entered Jerusalem. Upon his arrival, Bin al-Khattab searched for a top Jewish priest who converted to Islam to guide him toward the location of the rock and al-Aqsa Mosque, heritage researcher Wassim Afifi said.

Omar bin al-Khattab found the location of the rock (the place where the Prophet had ascended to heaven on Isra’ and Mi’raj night) and ordered it to be cleaned up. It is also said that he cleaned it with his own garments along with his followers. They performed Dawn prayers by the grave of Prophet Dawood (David) and it was the first time Adhan (the call for prayer) was heard in Jerusalem. He then ordered that Al-Aqsa Mosque to be built at that location as it was just a wall within a large area.

▪️On 13 Ramadan in 484 AH, the first Friday prayer was held at the Zawiyat al-Juyashi Mosque, the first mosque built with stone in Cairo. Its architectural significance stems from its minaret, which is considered the oldest Fatimid minaret in Egypt. The minaret was adorned with great decorations and it overlooked Cairo views from the top of Mount Mokattam.

▪️The mosque is registered under the number 304 in the list of Islamic monuments. It was built by Badr al-Jamali, the minister of the Fatimid Caliph al-Mustansir in 478 AH (1085 AD) on the edge of Mount Mokattam behind The Citadel. The name of the mosque is the Emir of armies Badr al-Jamali who was the father of Al Najm Badr al-Jamali, an Armanian Mamlook bought by Gamal al-Dawla bin Emad (known by al-Gamali) who served in the army until he ruled over the emirate of Damascus in 455 AH.

➖Muhammad Ali Pasha

Muhammad Ali Pasha, ruler of Egypt, died this day on the year 1256 AH.

▪️Muhammad Ali was born on March 1, 1769 in Qula. His father was Ibrahim Agha was from a family of Albanian origin. His father married from the family of Shurbaji, who was the governor of Qula at the time and he got appointed head of the road guard.

Mohammed Ali's mother died when he was 6 followed by all his brothers. He had 17 brothers all of whom died during the life of their father.

When Ali reached the age of 10, his father involved him in tobacco trade, before he ventured on military path as a leader of soldiers. He did not receive any education and began to learn to read and write at the age of 45.

Mohammed Ali Pasha was abandoned by his wife Amina after the infamous massacre of the Citadel, where she condemned the carnage committed by him against the Mamelukes and they were separated for life.

He fell ill in his final days as he turned 80 and suffered mental health issues and loss of his memory. As he failed to follow up on the leadership responsibilities, an urgent council under the presidency of Ibrahim Pasha was established to run the government. In 1848, the Egyptian Chronicle published that due to Muhammad Ali’s illness it was unanimously decided to appoint Ibrahim Pasha Ruler of Egypt in April 1847.

➖Salah Salem

Salah Musatafa Salem was born on September 1920 in Sankat city, eastern Sudan.

He spent his childhood there and learnt his first science lessons from its Katatib – schools for learning Qur’an, and principles of writing and reading.

Salah’s father returned to Cairo, so that both Salah and his brother, Jamal, received their primary education there. Salah got his baccalaureate and graduated from the Military Academy in 1948.

When he was 18, he graduated from the Military Academy in 1948 and joined the Fedayeen group -a military group willing to sacrifice themselves - under the leadership of Ahmad Abdul Aziz.

Egyptian Prime Minister Lt. Col. Gamal Abdel Nasser prays at a Cairo mosque with the Minister of National Guidance, Maj. Salah Salem, right, in sunglasses, in 1954. (AP)

He was famous for his strange habit of wearing his black glasses all the time, even in official meetings. Salah fought in Palestine where he met Gamal Abdel Nasser during the siege of his battalion in Faluja. He joined the Free Officers Movement and was a member of the Executive Committee of the Revolutionary Command Council.

During the revolution of July 23, 1952, he was in charge of controlling the troops stationed in El-Arish. Salah took over the Ministry of National Guidance from June 18, 1953 to October 7, 1958. He bet that he will unite Egypt and Sudan and in 1954 he traveled to southern Sudan to do that.

He became the first Egyptian official to go there and imitate their habits. One of the most famous southern Sudanese habits was to dance almost naked.

He did not succeed in his mission, as the Sudanese people chose to be independent from Egypt. Therefore, he resigned on August 31, 1955 from his post as the Minister of National Guidance (In modern days: Media) and soon returned to his ministerial post.

In his last days, he suffered from kidney failure and had to travel abroad to do the dialysis. Because of him, the first dialysis machine was imported to Egypt.

On February 18, 1962, he died at 42 from his illness. He was the first member from the Revolutionary command council to die.

Gamal Abdel Nasser held a magnificent funeral for him, which started from the Circassian Mosque next to the Ministry of Awqaf to Ibrahim Pasha Square.

வரலாறு முழுவதும் ரமலான் 13வது நாளில் நடந்தது என்ன?

▪️ரமலானின் பதின்மூன்றாம் நாளில், ஹிஜ்ரி 15ல் (AH) உமர் பின் அல்-கத்தாப் ஜெருசலேமுக்கு வந்தார். ஹிஜ்ரி 484ல் மொகத்தம் மலையில் உள்ள கியூஷி மசூதியில் வெள்ளிக்கிழமை தொழுகையை நிறைவேற்றினார்.

▪️முஹம்மது அலி பாஷா ஹிஜ்ரி 1256 இல் இறந்தார், எகிப்தின் புரட்சிகரக் கட்டளைக் குழுவின் உறுப்��ினர் சலாஹ் சேலம் 1381 ஹிஜ்ரியில் இறந்தார்.

➖உமர் பின் அல்-கத்தாப்

ஹிஜ்ரி 15 ஆம் ஆண்டின் இந்த நாளில், உமர் பின் அல்-கத்தாப் ஜெருசலேமுக்குள் நுழைந்தார். அவர் வந்தவுடன், பின் அல்-கத்தாப் பாறை மற்றும் அல்-அக்ஸா மசூதியின் இருப்பிடத்தை நோக்கி அவரை வழிநடத்த இஸ்லாத்திற்கு மாறிய ஒரு உயர் யூத பாதிரியாரைத் தேடினார், பாரம்பரிய ஆராய்ச்சியாளர் வாசிம் அபிஃபி கூறினார்.

உமர் பின் அல்-கத்தாப் பாறையின் இருப்பிடத்தைக் கண்டுபிடித்தார் (இஸ்ரா மற்றும் மிஃராஜ் இரவில் நபிகள் நாயகம் சொர்க்கத்திற்கு ஏறிய இடம்) அதைச் சுத்தம் செய்ய உத்தரவிட்டார். அவர் தனது ஆதரவாளர்களுடன் சேர்ந்து தனது சொந்த ஆடைகளால் அதை சுத்தம் செய்ததாகவும் கூறப்படுகிறது. அவர்கள் நபி தாவூத் (தாவீது) அவர்களின் கல்லறையில் விடியற்காலையில் தொழுகை நடத்தினார்கள், ஜெருசலேமில் அதான் (தொழுகைக்கான அழைப்பு) முதன்முறையாக கேட்கப்பட்டது. பின்னர் அவர் அல்-அக்ஸா மசூதி ஒரு பெரிய பகுதிக்குள் ஒரு சுவராக இருந்ததால் அந்த இடத்தில் கட்ட உத்தரவிட்டார்.

▪️ஹிஜ்ரி 484 இல் 13 ரமலான் அன்று, கெய்ரோவில் கல்லால் கட்டப்பட்ட முதல் மசூதியான ஜாவியத் அல்-ஜுயாஷி மசூதியில் முதல் வெள்ளிக்கிழமை தொழுகை நடைபெற்றது. அதன் கட்டடக்கலை முக்கியத்துவம் அதன் மினாரிலிருந்து உருவாகிறது, இது எகிப்தின் பழமையான ஃபாத்திமிட் மினாராகக் கருதப்படுகிறது. மினாரட் பெரிய அலங்காரங்களால் அலங்கரிக்கப்பட்டிருந்தது மற்றும் மொக்கட்டம் மலையின் உச்சியில் இருந்து கெய்ரோ காட்சிகளை அது கவனிக்கவில்லை.

▪️இஸ்லாமிய நினைவுச்சின்னங்களின் பட்டியலில் 304 என்ற எண்ணின் கீழ் மசூதி பதிவு செய்யப்பட்டுள்ளது. இது 478 AH (கி.பி. 1085) இல் பாத்திமித் கலிஃப் அல்-முஸ்தான்சீரின் மந்திரி பத்ர் அல்-ஜமாலியால் தி சிட்டாடலுக்குப் பின்னால் உள்ள மொகத்தம் மலையின் விளிம்பில் கட்டப்பட்டது. மசூதியின் பெயர் படைகளின் எமிர் பத்ர் அல்-ஜமாலி ஆவார், அவர் அல் நஜ்ம் பத்ர் அல்-ஜமாலியின் தந்தை ஆவார், அவர் ஆர்மேனிய மம்லூக்கை வாங்கினார், கமல் அல்-தவ்லா பின் எமாத் (அல்-கமாலியால் அறியப்படுகிறார்) அவர் வரை இராணுவத்தில் பணியாற்றினார். அவர் ஹிஜ்ரி 455 இல் டமாஸ்கஸ் எமிரேட்டை ஆட்சி செய்தார்.

➖முகமது அலி பாஷா

எகிப்தின் ஆட்சியாளரான முகமது அலி பாஷா ஹிஜ்ரி 1256 ஆம் ஆண்டு இந்த நாளில் இறந்தார்.

▪️முகமது அலி மார்ச் 1, 1769 இல் குலாவில் பிறந்தார். அவரது தந்தை இப்ராஹிம் ஆகா அல்பேனிய வம்சாவளியைச் சேர்ந்த குடும்பத்தைச் சேர்ந்தவர். அவரது தந்தை அந்த நேரத்தில் குலாவின் ஆளுநராக இருந்த ஷுர்பாஜியின் குடும்பத்திலிருந்து திருமணம் செய்து கொண்டார், மேலும் அவர் சாலைக் காவலரின் தலைவராக நியமிக்கப்பட்டார்.

முகமது அலியின் தாயார் 6 வயதில் இறந்தார், அதைத் தொடர்ந்து அவரது சகோதரர்கள் அனைவரும். அவருக்கு 17 சகோதரர்கள் இருந்தனர், அவர்கள் அனைவரும் தங்கள் தந்தையின் வாழ்நாளில் இறந்தனர்.

அலி 10 வயதை அடைந்தபோது, ​​​​அவரது தந்தை அவரை புகையிலை வர்த்தகத்தில் ஈடுபடுத்தினார், அவர் இராணுவப் பாதையில் வீரர்களின் தலைவராகச் செல்வார். அவர் எந்தக் கல்வியையும் பெறவில்லை, 45 வயதில் எழுதவும் படிக்கவும் கற்றுக்கொள்ளத் தொடங்கினார்.

முகமது அலி பாஷாவின் இழிவான படுகொலைக்குப் பிறகு அவரது மனைவி அமினாவால் கைவிடப்பட்டார், அங்கு அவர் மாமேலுக்களுக்கு எதிராக செய்த படுகொலைகளைக் கண்டித்து அவர்கள் வாழ்நாள் முழுவதும் பிரிந்தனர்.

அவர் 80 வயதை எட்டியபோது அவரது இறுதி நாட்களில் நோய்வாய்ப்பட்டார், மேலும் மனநலப் பிரச்சினைகள் மற்றும் அவரது நினைவாற்றல் இழப்பு ஆகியவற்றால் பாதிக்கப்பட்டார். அவர் தலைமைப் பொறுப்புகளைப் பின்பற்றத் தவறியதால், அரசாங்கத்தை நடத்துவதற்கு இப்ராகிம் பாஷாவின் தலைமையில் அவசரக் குழு நிறுவப்பட்டது. 1848 ஆம் ஆண்டில், எகிப்திய குரோனிக்கிள் வெளியிட்டது, முகமது அலியின் நோய் காரணமாக ஏப்ரல் 1847 இல் எகிப்தின் ஆட்சியாளராக இப்ராஹிம் பாஷாவை நியமிக்க ஒருமனதாக முடிவு செய்யப்பட்டது.

➖சலா சேலம்

சலா முசதாபா சேலம் கிழக்கு சூடானில் உள்ள சங்கத் நகரில் செப்டம்பர் 1920 இல் பிறந்தார்.

அவர் தனது குழந்தைப் பருவத்தை அங்கேயே கழித்தார் மற்றும் அவரது முதல் அறிவியல் பாடங்களை அதன் கடாதிப் - குர்ஆனைக் கற்கும் பள்ளிகள் மற்றும் எழுதுதல் மற்றும் வாசிப்பதற்கான கொள்கைகளைக் கற்றுக்கொண்டார்.

சாலாவின் தந்தை கெய்ரோவுக்குத் திரும்பினார், அதனால் சலாவும் அவரது சகோதரர் ஜமாலும் அங்கு தங்கள் ஆரம்பக் கல்வியைப் பெற்றனர். சலா தனது இளங்கலை பட்டம் பெற்றார் மற்றும் 1948 இல் இராணுவ அகாடமியில் பட்டம் பெற்றார்.

அவருக்கு 18 வயதாக இருந்தபோது, ​​அவர் 1948 இல் இராணுவ அகாடமியில் பட்டம் பெற்றார் மற்றும் அஹ்மத் அப்துல் அஜிஸின் தலைமையில் தங்களைத் தியாகம் செய்யத் தயாராக இருந்த இராணுவக் குழுவான ஃபெடயீன் குழுவில் சேர்ந்தார்.

எகிப்திய பிரதம மந்திரி லெப்டினன்ட் கர்னல் கமல் அப்தெல் நாசர் 1954 இல் கெய்ரோ மசூதியில் தேசிய வழிகாட்டுதல் மந்திரி மேஜர் சலா சேலத்துடன் சன்கிளாஸில் பிரார்த்தனை செய்கிறார். (ஏபி)

உத்தியோகபூர்வ கூட்டங்களில் கூட கருப்பு கண்ணாடியை எப்போதும் அணிந்து கொள்ளும் விசித்திரமான பழக்கத்திற்கு அவர் பிரபலமானார். பலஸ்தீனத்தில் சலா போரிட்டார், அங்கு பலுஜாவில் அவரது பட்டாலியன் முற்றுகையின் போது கமல் அப்தெல் நாசரை சந்தித்தார். அவர் இலவச அதிகாரிகள் இயக்கத்தில் சேர்ந்தார் மற்றும் புரட்சிகர கட்டளை கவுன்சிலின் செயற்குழு உறுப்பினராக இருந்தார்.

ஜூலை 23, 1952 புரட்சியின் போது, ​​எல்-அரிஷில் நிறுத்தப்பட்ட துருப்புக்களைக் கட்டுப்படுத்தும் பொறுப்பில் இருந்தார். ஜூன் 18, 1953 முதல் அக்டோபர் 7, 1958 வரை தேசிய வழிகாட்டுதல் அமைச்சகத்தை சாலா ஏற்றுக்கொண்டார். எகிப்தையும் சூடானையும் ஒன்றிணைப்பதாக அவர் பந்தயம் கட்டினார், 1954 இல் அவர் தெற்கு சூடானுக்கு பயணம் செய்தார்.

அவர் அங்கு சென்று அவர்களின் பழக்கவழக்கங்களைப் பின்பற்றிய முதல் எகிப்திய அதிகாரி ஆனார். தெற்கு சூடானின் மிகவும் பிரபலமான பழக்கங்களில் ஒன்று கிட்டத்தட்ட நிர்வாணமாக நடனமாடுவதாகும்.

சூடான் மக்கள் எகிப்திலிருந்து சுதந்திரமாக இருக்கத் தேர்ந்தெடுத்ததால், அவர் தனது பணியில் வெற்றிபெறவில்லை. எனவே, அவர் ஆகஸ்ட் 31, 1955 அன்று தனது தேசிய வழிகாட்டுதல் மந்திரி பதவியை ராஜினாமா செய்தார் (நவீன நாட்களில்: ஊடகம்) விரைவில் தனது அமைச்சர் பதவிக்கு திரும்பினார்.

அவரது கடைசி நாட்களில், சிறுநீரக செயலிழப்பால் பாதிக்கப்பட்ட அவர், டயாலிசிஸ் செய்ய வெளிநாடு செல்ல வேண்டியிருந்தது. அவர் காரணமாக, முதல் டயாலிசிஸ் இயந்திரம் எகிப்துக்கு இறக்குமதி செய்யப்பட்டது.

பிப்ரவரி 18, 1962 இல், அவர் தனது 42 வயதில் தனது நோயால் இறந்தார். புரட்சிக் கட்டளைக் குழுவில் இருந்து இறந்த முதல் உறுப்பினர்.

கமல் அப்தெல் நாசர் அவருக்கு ஒரு பிரமாண்டமான இறுதி சடங்கு நடத்தினார், இது அவ்காஃப் அமைச்சகத்திற்கு அடுத்த சர்க்காசியன் மசூதியிலிருந்து இப்ராஹிம் பாஷா சதுக்கம் வரை தொடங்கியது.

[mentalnahigijena]

Mameluci = Skalibe = Slaveni ! Robovi-ratnici srednjovjekovnog islama zbacili su svoje gospodare, porazili Mongole i krstaše i uspostavili dinastiju koja je trajala 300 godina.Mameluci su vladali Egiptom i Sirijom od 1250. do 1517. godine, kada su Osmanlije ugasile njihovu dinastiju. Ali mameluci su se prvi put pojavili u Abasidskom kalifatu u devetom veku, a čak i nakon njihovog zbacivanja od strane Osmanlija, nastavili su da čine važan deo egipatskog islamskog društva i postojali kao uticajna grupa do 19. veka. Uništili su krstaška kraljevstva Outremera i spasili Siriju, Egipat i sveta mjesta islama od Mongola. Učinili su Kairo dominantnim gradom islamskog svijeta u kasnijem srednjem vijeku, a pod ovom naizgled nepismenom vlašću vojnika-državnika, zanatstvo, arhitektura i učenost su cvjetali. Ipak, dinastija ostaje praktično nepoznata mnogima na Zapadu.Dinastija je imala dvije faze. Od 1250. do 1381. Bahri klika je proizvela mamelučke sultane; od 1382. do 1517. dominirali su mameluci Burgi. Ove grupe su dobile imena po glavnim pukovovima koje su Mameluci obezbijedili za posljednjeg ajjubidskog sultana as-Saliha kojem su služili prije svrgavanja 1250. godine; puk Bahirya ili River Island, baziran na riječnom ostrvu u centru Kaira i puku Burgi ili Tower.Riječ Mameluk znači ‘u vlasništvu’ i Mameluci nisu bili porijeklom iz Egipta, već su uvijek bili robovi vojnici, uglavnom Turci Qipchak iz centralne Azije. U principu (iako ne uvijek u praksi) mameluk nije mogao prenijeti svoju imovinu ili vlasništvo svom sinu, zaista, sinovima je u teoriji bila uskraćena prilika da služe u mamelučkim pukovnijama, tako da je grupa morala biti stalno nadopunjavana iz vanjskih izvora. Bahri Mameluci su uglavnom bili starosedeoci iz južne Rusije, a Burgi su se sastojali uglavnom od Čerkeza sa Kavkaza. Kao stepski narod, imali su više zajedničkog s Mongolima nego sa narodima Sirije i Egipta među kojima su živjeli. I držali su svoje garnizone odvojeno, ne miješajući se sa stanovništvom na teritorijama. Savremeni arapski istoričar Abu Šama zabilježio je nakon mamelučke pobjede nad Mongolima kod Ayn Jaluta 1260. da,Dječaci od oko 13 godina bi bili zarobljeni iz područja na sjeveru Perzijskog carstva i obučeni da postanu elitna snaga za ličnu upotrebu sultana ili viših gospodara. Arapska riječ Ghulam (dječak) ponekad se koristila za tjelohranitelje koje bi oni postali. Dječake bi poslao kalif ili sultan da učvrste svoju vladavinu čak do Španije (Venecija i Đenova su bili glavni igrači u njihovom transportu uprkos papinim zabranama) i prodati ih zapovjednicima islamskih vlada u regiji. Pod svojim novim gospodarima bili su oslobođeni, prešli na islam i prošli intenzivnu vojnu obuku.Rukopis iz kasnog mamelučkog doba o obuci s kopljem, oko 1500.Islamsko društvo, poput onog u srednjovjekovnom kršćanstvu, poprimilo je oblik teorijske piramide vjernosti s kraljem ili sultanom na vrhu i brojnim sitnim gospodarima u njegovoj osnovi, pri čemu je svaki gospodar iznad njih imao prava lojalnosti nad njima. U vojnim društvima 13. stoljeća viši gospodari ili amiri održavali su veliki broj Mameluka, a najviše ih je držao sultan. Tokom mamelučkog sultanata, sukcesija i borba za moć da se ospori sukcesija bili su zasnovani uglavnom na veličini baze moći kandidata, u smislu broja ljudi u oružju i gospodara klijenata, koje je mogao prikupiti.Mameluci, koji su u mladosti oduzeti od svojih porodica i nisu imali rodbinskih veza u svojim novim domovinama, bili su lično zavisni od svog gospodara. To je državi Mameluka, odvojenoj od svog matičnog društva, dalo čvrstinu koja joj je omogućila da preživi napetosti plemena i ličnih ambicija, kroz uspostavljanje međuzavisnosti između nižih redova i narednika i viših lordova.A u centru mamelučka politika bila je krvava i brutalna. Mameluci nisu trebali biti u stanju naslijediti bogatstvo ili moć izvan vlastite generacije, ali pokušaji stvaranja loze su se dogodili i svako naslijeđe najavljivano je međusobnom borbom. Čistke viših gospodara i suparnika bile su uobičajene, a sultani su obično koristili nabijanje na kolac i razapinjanje da bi kaznili one osumnjičene za djela lèse majesté ili spletke.U teoriji, mamelukov život ga je pripremio za ništa drugo osim za rat i odanost svom gospodaru. Veliki naglasak je stavljen na Furūsiyya – riječ koja se sastoji od tri elementa: 'ulum (nauka), funun (umjetnost) i adab (književnost) – konjičkih vještina. The Furūsiyyanije bio sličan viteškom kodeksu hrišćanskog viteza utoliko što je uključivao moralni kodeks koji obuhvata vrline kao što su hrabrost, hrabrost, velikodušnost i velikodušnost; ali se bavilo i upravljanjem, obukom i brigom o konjima koji su nosili ratnika u bitku i omogućili mu sportske aktivnosti u slobodno vrijeme. Takođe je uključivao taktiku konjice, tehnike jahanja, oklop i streličarstvo. Neki tekstovi čak su govorili o vojnoj taktici: formiranju armija, upotrebi vatrenih i dimnih zavesa. Obrađeno je čak i liječenje rana.Mamelučka dinastija je pažljivo kodificirala Furūsiyya , i stvoreni su prekrasni ilustrovani primjeri. Ove knjige takođe nose znak mongolskog uticaja; mnoge stranice su ukrašene lotosima i feniksima, motivima prenesenim iz Kine kroz Pax Mongolica .Mameluci su gotovo u potpunosti živjeli unutar svojih garnizona, a njihove slobodne aktivnosti pokazuju upečatljivu korespondenciju s mnogo ranijim komentarom vojnog pisca Vegecija da su rimske vježbe bile beskrvne bitke, a njihove bitke krvave vježbe. Polo je bio glavni među njima za Mameluke; sa svojom potrebom za kontrolom konja, uskim zaokretima i naletima brzine, oponašao je vještine potrebne na bojnom polju. Takmičenja u streličarstvu sa konjima, akrobacije konja i borbene predstave slične evropskim nadmetanjima često su se održavale i do dva puta sedmično. Mamelučki sultan Baybars je izgradio hipodrom u Kairu za održavanje ovih igara i polo utakmica.Prilika Mameluka da svrgnu svoje gospodare došla je krajem 1240-ih, u vrijeme kada je kurdska dinastija Ajubida, koju je osnovao Saladin 1170-ih, dostigla modus vivendisa državama krstaša; sukobi, a ne otvoreni rat, bio je red dana u Siriji i Svetoj zemlji. Međutim, događaji na istoku počeli su da utiču na region. Mongoli su u istočnim stepama napadali zapadna kineska plemena i napredovali u južnu Rusiju, potiskujući druge narode na zapad. Godine 1244., uz prešutnu podršku Ajubida u Kairu, Jerusalim je pao u ruke lutajuće grupe Kvarezmijana, grupe istočne Perzije koja je i sama bježala od mongolskog uništenja njihovog novonastalog carstva. Jedno od njihovih prvih radnji bilo je uništavanje grobnica latinskih kraljeva Jerusalima. Kao odgovor, Luj IX od Francuske sazvao je križarski rat (sedmi) iako ni papstvo ni bilo koji drugi veliki kršćanski monarh nisu bili potaknuti na akciju. Umjesto direktnog napada na Svetu zemlju,foto: Grobnice mameluka, Kairo, Egipat, 1910-te.

[kumimonster]

2019 September 01 - alexandria

[josefavomjaaga]

Napoleon’s suicide attempt

There is a book by historian Thierry Lentz entitled "Les vingt jours de Fontainebleau", referring to the three weeks Napoleon spent at this castle between the fall of Paris and his departure for Elba. This period also includes his suicide attempt, and since @northernmariette was interested in this topic, here's a short summary.

Thierry Lentz's narrative for the most part does not follow Caulaincourt's memoirs, which he consults for the time before and after, but the notes of Louis Etienne Saint-Denis, aka "Mameluk Ali", who, although not a direct witness himself, drew his knowledge from the valet Hubert, a friend of his who was on duty that night. While until the middle of the nineteenth century there were apparently grave doubts, today at least no one denies that Napoleon's suicide attempt really took place. In any case, there are enough testimonies that point to immense agitation on that night from 12 to 13 April 1814.

Chronological context: On the afternoon of 12 April, after delivering Napoleon's unconditional abdication to Tsar Alexander as Napoleon's plenipotentiaries and negotiating the Treaty of Fontainebleau with the Tsar and the interim government, Macdonald and Caulaincourt had returned to Fontainebleau. Ney, the third member of their negotiating team in fact, had already left them and joined the Allies. During the negotiations, Napoleon had once again tried to withdraw his abdication, a move that a deeply unnerved Caulaincourt simply chose to ignore.

Nevertheless, the two remaining negotiators are received warmly by Napoleon upon their return. Among Napoleon's remaining entourage, the mood is almost relieved to see the agony finally come to an end. Macdonald and Caulaincourt report and are asked to attend supper at 9 o'clock in the evening, but they eat alone because Napoleon feigns indisposition, retires to his room and eats something there. When he returns, he dismisses Macdonald for the evening with orders to be back tomorrow at nine. Caulaincourt stays a little longer before he too is dismissed to bed with the remark that Napoleon will send for him later tonight.

Up to this point we have followed Caulaincourt, now we switch to Saint-Denis:

At about four o'clock in the morning Napoleon calls the valet Hubert and asks for his dressing gown. Hubert enters, puts the lamp on the side table, brings Napoleon his dressing gown, a pair of footed trousers, and puts the slippers on him. Then he is instructed to rekindle the fire. Napoleon declares that he wants to write to the Empress. Hubert descends the stairs to the writing cabinet to fetch ink, paper and quills, and then retreats back to the antechamber. He leaves the door slightly ajar and can watch Napoleon start to write several times, only to crumple up the papers each time and throw them into the fire.

Napoleon did indeed write to Marie Louise that night, although Hubert seems to have missed the fact that Napoleon actually completed one of his draft letters. According to the editors of the "Correspondance Générale", Tom 15, however, the letter was never delivered to Marie Louise. It reads:

No. 38658 - To Marie-Louise. Fontainebleau, 13 April 1814, 3 a.m.

My dear Louise, I have received your letter. I approve of your going to Rambouillet where your father will join you. It is the only consolation you can receive in our misfortunes. For eight days I have been waiting for the moment with eagerness. Your father has been misguided and bad for us, but he will be a good father for you and your son. Caulaincourt has arrived. Yesterday I sent you a copy of the arrangements he signed, which ensured your son's fate. Goodbye, my sweet Louise. You are what I love most in the world. My misfortunes affect me only by the harm they do to you. All your life you will love the most tender of husbands. Give a kiss to your son. Farewell, my Louise. All yours.

[I can’t help but notice the most secure sign that he really may have wanted to kill himself: He calls little Napoleon Marie Louise’s son no less than three times. Usually, it’s always »my son«.]

Back to events according to valet Hubert:

On the dresser are usually glasses, a sugar bowl and a carafe of water, but Hubert happens to know that the sugar bowl is missing this evening as the servant who should have filled it has left it with him in the antechamber. Nevertheless, he hears Napoleon pouring liquid into a glass and then stirring it with a spoon. He wonders what Napoleon is dissolving in water, since he has no sugar, but then assumes that Napoleon must have taken sugar from his travel nécessaire.

[While I am struck by the fact that it was apparently customary to sweeten normal water with sugar? Ah, these ascetic, hardened military men!]

After a moment of silence, Napoleon approaches the door and tells Hubert to call Messrs Caulaincourt, Maret, Bertrand and Fain. As soon as the gentlemen arrive, Napoleon tells them that he cannot and will not bear the dishonour of France and has therefore just poisoned himself. Whereupon, of course, there is immediate commotion, people run around the castle looking for Yvan or anyone else who might have an antidote at hand, they give Napoleon emetics, watch him vomit and oversee him as he writhes in convulsions on his bed, complaining that this dying thing is really a difficult business. He falls asleep briefly, they carry him to the window for fresh air, and when the immediate danger seems over, they leave him under Constant's care and go to bed. The next morning Napoleon is already well enough to go for a walk in the garden with the gentlemen.

To what extent the suicide attempt was really meant seriously, says the author, can hardly be decided from today's perspective.

[joachimnapoleon]

Hello, your blog is really nice and I love seeing more poeple who loves Napoleon, it's nice knowing that I'm not alone :3 I would like to know more about Roustom Raza (Rostom Razmadze as I would say, the bodyguard of His Majesty). If you have more information of him ofc, like simple daily habits or his taste in things, or if it's too much just some facts, really appreciate!

I recently ordered Roustam memoirs and I'd love to dig deeper, tought I would share this joy with you cuz no one in my family understands this obsession ^^

Have a nice day/evening ♡

Hello! Nice to meet you, and I’m glad you’re enjoying my blog. :) I haven’t read very much about Roustam, but here are some links you might find interesting:

An anecdote about Roustam and Eugène de Beauharnais, from @josefavomjaaga

Roustam helps himself to Napoleon’s chicken

There is also some good information about Roustam in this article by @shannonselin about Louis Étienne Saint-Denis (known as “Mameluke Ali”); Saint-Denis served as Roustam’s assistant.

(If any of my fellow Napoleonics have any Roustam-related things to share for @nereidesea, please feel free to add to this post :)

[eretzyisrael]

Refuting the Narrative and Winning the Tribal War

Last week, Elder of Ziyon described an interesting conjecture on the origin of the word “Palestine”: that it is derived from the Greek word for “wrestler,” which is part of the name taken by Jacob when he wrestled – “isra” – with an angel of God, “El.” So “Palestine” means “Israel.”

Is it true? Who knows? But it is ironic in the light of the assertions of the Palestinian Arabs that they are “natives,” an indigenous people that were “colonized” by the European Jews who, according to them, are not even a people but just a religious sect.

This is the heart of the Palestinian narrative that is presented as a justification for their violent struggle to expel the Jews from Eretz Yisrael. The post-colonial ideology that is current today, especially on the part of European former colonialists, demands that colonists turn control of the lands they exploited over to the indigenous residents. If the colonists refuse to do the right thing, then the natives are – if not entirely justified in turning to violence – at least understood and sympathized with. The Palestinians even make the absurd claim that the UN Charter, which permits victims of aggression to defend themselves, approves.

The oldest indigenous people on the land, and the most legitimate claimants for aboriginal rights, are the Jewish people. The fact that they won their battle – against British and Arab colonists of their ancestral land – does not change that. The fact that Jews may have been a minority in the land on any particular day from biblical times to the present, does not change that. The fact that most of the Jews living in Israel today are descended from Jews that had been living in exile in Muslim countries, Europe, Africa, India, and other places, does not change that.

The Palestinian Arab claim to being an aboriginal people that was invaded and colonized is false in two respects: first, specifically Palestinian peoplehood did not exist to a great extent before the mid-1960s, when it developed in opposition to Zionism. And second, few Palestinian families have a connection to the land that extends more than a couple of generations before the arrival of the Zionists.

Prior to the appearance of Palestinism, which was catalyzed by the KGB-advised PLO in the 1960s, Arabs in the land primarily viewed themselves as members of their extended families or tribes. The land itself was considered “southern Syria,” and there are numerous quotations from Palestinian Arab leaders, as late as 1977, that deny the existence of a Palestinian identity in favor of a pan-Arab one.

There may be Palestinian Arabs that are descended from people that lived in the land during biblical times, or arrived in the Arab conquest of the 7th century. But almost all came no earlier than the invasion of Syria (which included Eretz Yisrael and Lebanon) by Muhammad Ali (not the boxer) around 1830, and many of them migrated from the surrounding countries to take advantage of the economic development of the land by the Zionists and later the British Empire. When the UN defined “Palestinian refugee” in 1948, it included “persons whose normal place of residence was Palestine during the period 1 June 1946 to 15 May 1948…”, to include numerous recent migrants.

The last time Eretz Yisrael was governed by its indigenous inhabitants was during the Hasmonean Dynasty (140-137 BCE), the folks that gave us Hanukah. Since then, it has been ruled by a succession of invaders, including the Romans, Byzantines, Persians, Arabs, Crusaders, Mamelukes, Turks, and British. Until the advent of the Palestinian Authority in 1993 and the Hamas takeover in Gaza, there has been nothing approaching Palestinian sovereignty anywhere.

A recent NY Times hit-job on Israel inadvertently made the oppositional nature of Palestinism clear. Asmaa Azaizeh, an Arab citizen of Israel and an intellectual, was quoted thus:

“Being a Palestinian is a way of resisting injustice,” she said. If there was nothing to resist, “I wouldn’t care if I was Palestinian or Egyptian or Lebanese or Jordanian.”

Palestinians are Arabs and they share the language, religious beliefs, and customs of Arabs in the surrounding countries. What makes them specifically Palestinian, as Ms. Azaizeh says, is their opposition to Zionism and the Jewish state. It doesn’t need to be said that in comparison, the Jewish people have a unique language and religion, as well as a relationship to this particular piece of land that goes back for millennia. As explained in the Torah, this land is inseparable from Jewish identity.

***

As I wrote last week, we are engaged in a conflict of tribes over the land. Regardless of the justice of their position, the tribe that prevails will have the land, and the loser will disappear.

The Arabs that call themselves Palestinians understand the importance of the land to their ideology far better than secular Jews do. That is why, with all the divisions and rivalries among them, they can agree almost single-mindedly on their goal of recovering their land and their honor.

One of the biggest mistakes that Israel makes in dealing with Arabs is in failing to understand the importance of maintaining her own honor. In the Middle East, honor is the greater part of deterrence. There is a Bedouin story about a rich man with many animals, several wives, and a number of sons. One day he sees someone steal a goat, and does nothing. He has many goats; maybe the thief is hungry, he thinks. The thief is emboldened and brings his friends. Little by little they take everything the man has. He has lost his honor, and without honor has no rights. Soon he finds his animals gone, his sons murdered, and his wives raped. He is left sitting outside the tent that used to belong to him.

Every time a Jew is humiliated on the street, every time they steal a car, burn a centimeter of land or make us afraid to walk on it, the Arabs move forward, closer to their goal. Every time a Jew moves away from the periphery of the country because of crime and insecurity, we lose ground. When we allow Arabs to shoot at us, or God forbid, kill us, without taking revenge, they gain and we lose.

There is a strategy for us to win in this conflict. It is to push forward in all parts of Eretz Yisrael to fully control the land, to make the Arabs understand that they have no hope of driving us out. It means increasing Jewish presence and control at the Temple Mount, and not the opposite, as has been happening since 1967. It means ending the no-go zones inside our capital. It means adopting a death penalty for terrorist murderers, and meeting Bedouin banditry in the south with overwhelming force. It means crushing the genocidal regime of Hamas, even if it requires a military occupation of Gaza. It means stopping the flow of money from the EU into illegal Arab building in Judea and Samaria, and encouraging hundreds of thousands of Jews to move there. It will probably also mean targeted killings and expulsions.

Life would not be as easy or pleasant for the Jews of Israel as it is now if they take on this task. It would require more military service, and it would cost money and lives. The state would have to become less open, liberal, and democratic. There would be opposition from the Israeli Left, Europe and America. The special position of the Jewish state as “the Jew of nations” ensures that, even if the nations of the world generally went out of their way to intervene on the side of justice, they would not choose our side.

On the other hand, if we don’t do it, if we allow the Arabs to continue their incremental gains and their erosion of our sovereignty, the day will come that we find ourselves outside our tent with no sons, wives or camels. There isn’t another alternative.

There is no doubt in my mind that we have the resources and the ability to win, to assert Jewish dominance over all of Eretz Yisrael. The harder question is this: how can we develop the will and the unity required to do it?

Abu Yehuda

[bm-american-art]

On the Way between Old and New Cairo, Citadel Mosque of Mohammed Ali, and Tombs of the Mamelukes, Louis Comfort Tiffany, 1872, Brooklyn Museum: American Art

Size: 41 3/8 x 68 1/16 in. (105.1 x 172.9 cm) Medium: Oil on canvas

https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/221

[armeniaitn]

A Brief History Of Armenia

New Post has been published on https://armenia.in-the.news/culture/a-brief-history-of-armenia-50129-14-08-2020/

A Brief History Of Armenia

The Armenian origin 

There are several theories about the history of Armenia. Legends opine that the descendants of bisbisnipote (great great grandson) of Noah, Hayk are known as the Armenians. It is said that after the floods, Noah’s Ark ran aground on Mount Ararat. Since then to mark this tradition, the Armenians call it their country and the place came to be known as Hayastan.

However, historians have spoken differently about the history of Armenia. Historians have linked the origin of Armenians to the birth of a tribal group in Hayasa-Azzi between 1500 BC-1200 BC. The tribals lived to the west of the Armenian plateau.

As the Hayasa-Azzi lived close to the Hittite empire, violent confrontations often broke out between the two. The clashes continued till the end of the Bronze age when the Hayasa-Azzi was finally defeated by the Hittites.

The rise of Urartu Kingdom 

According to the history of Armenia, the Armenian empire fell under a group of kingdoms, referred to as Nairi (land of rivers) by the Assyrians between 1200 and 800 BC. These kingdoms finally assimilated with the kingdom of Urartu.

The kingdom of Urartu is a civilization that developed in between 800 and 600 BC is the East Asia minor and the Caucasus. The kingdom was known as the first Armenian empire.

King Aramu was the first to unite the empire as per the history of Armenia. The empire stretched from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea and also spread across the majority of Eastern Turkey. 

The Urartu kingdom enjoyed its maximum prosperity under King Sardui II. He extended the borders of the kingdom beyond River Tigris and river Euphrates, much similar to Lake Aleppo and Urmia.

Urartu was also known as the ‘kingdom of Ararat.’ Through the various manuscripts about the history of Armenia, it is learned that Urartu and Armenia were often referred to as the same country. 

The Behistun’s inscription, carved in three languages in 520 BC is a prime example. Built under the orders of Persia’s Darius the great, the inscription refers to the kingdom as Harminuia in Elamite, Armenia in Old Persian, and Urartu in Babylon.

Between the end of the seventh century and early sixth century, the Urartu kingdom was substituted by the Armenian kingdom. Orontid, the Armenian dynasty ruled over this empire.

The Rule of the Orontid dynasty, the Birth of Armenian Kingdom

The dynasty of Orontid established their rule over the empire of Armenia after the fall of the Urartu kingdom in 600 BC. The Orontids had captured the Armenian empire during the invasion of the Medes and the Scythians. Around this period, the Armenians took to Iranians traditions and names.

The Orontids acted as provincial governors or satraps to the Persian kings. However, after the death of Persia’s Cambyses II, the Armenians led a revolution that was disrupted by Persia’s Darius the I.

Soon after the changes in the Persian Empire, the Armenian empire too was divided into many satrapies. In 480 BC, the satrapies had assigned troops for the Xerxes invasion. The proximity of the Persians and the Armenians were broken by the Macedonian conquest. 

After the invasion of Alexander the Great, the Persian empire crumbled, and just like other regions, the Armenian empire was soon divided into two parts.

One region, Sophene or great Armenia was located between the Tigris headwaters Euphrates’s middle course. Later it was bifurcated into Sophene and Armenia. 

The other region, Armenia Pontica or little Armenia was located between the headwaters of Ali and Lico and the Euphrates.

According to the history of Armenia, the different regions were subjected to different fates. Little Armenia came under the rule of the very powerful king Pontus in the second century BC. 

Meanwhile, Sophene lost its independence and survived under the rule of king Cappadocia for a brief period.

A different Armenian history says that Great Armenia established itself as a state by escaping the rule of the Seleucids. The Seleucids could not capture the region because of its mountainous region which acted as a barrier against Greek invasions. The other reason was the Persian characteristics ingrained in the Armenians that involuntarily opposed Greek influence.

Armenia’s Second Kingdom

As per Strabo, during this time the Armenians started speaking one language, the Armenian language. Soon the Armenians announced their independence with the defeat of the Seleucides by the Roman empire.

Between 95 to 66 BC, under the leadership of Tigranes II the Great, the empire spread from the Caucasus to the present eastern region of Turkey, from Syria to Lebanon and across the ‘kingdom of three seas’- the Caspian Sea, the Black Sea, and the Mediterranean sea.

The capital of the second Armenian empire which was born cannot be located to date. However, Tigranes II succumbed in the hands of the Roman troops, and the Armenian major was ruled by the Romans.

The Advent of Rome

In 37 AD the Armenians were forced to surrender under the Parthians soon to be taken over by the Roman after 10 years. The Romans lost the empire shortly after.

Under Nero’s rule between 55-63 AD, the Romans again fought against the Parthians ruling over Armenia. Capturing the Armenian empire in 60 AD and losing it in 62 AD, the Romans finally captured the region in 63 AD. However, In the battle of Rhandeia, the Parthians lost. The Parthian king forcibly signed a treaty assigning his brother Tiridates the throne of Armenia. The crowning of the king took place under Nero’s rule. Thus rose Armenia’s Arcadis dynasty.

Armenia Christianized

The Armenian history records the Armenians as the first to officially be termed as Christians after its conversion in 301 AD, long before the Romans adapted to it. 

According to the King Tiridates’ historic Agatangelo, the Christianization took place due to a clash between king Tiridates III and Son of Anak, Gregory.

The Armenian history says that Gregory was instructed to make sacrifices to goddess Anahit which he refused in the name of his faith for Christianity. Upon his refusal, he was subjected to severe torture which didn’t deter him from his opinion. Finally, he was ordered to be thrown into a deep well filled with snakes, a place where none had been before. But Gregory survived his time in the well with the blessings of a widow.

Meanwhile, several attempts were made by Diocletian, a Roman emperor, to seduce Hripsime. Smelling the danger, Hripsime had escaped to Armenia to seek protection. 

Amidst this, Tiridates fell in love with Hripsime and wanted to be with her. After several rejections from Hripsime, Tiridates tortured and killed her. 

As a traditional punishment marked in the history of Armenia, the king was transformed into a wild boar. He came back to his human form after rescuing Gregory from the pit after thirteen years.

Witnessing the miracle of being transformed into the human form, Tiridates decided to take to Christianity. He also baptized the Armenians and the official religion of the Armenians came into being.

Soon Gregory and Tiridates started destroying the Pegan’s worship places and started building churches.

The Armenian history also speaks about a vision of Jesus Christ that Gregory saw. Following the vision, Gregory built a church in Vagarshapat. The place came to be known as the Etchmiadzin meaning a place where the only-begotten descended. 

Soon the Pegan priests were taught about Christianity. They became ministers of the new religion. Pegan children went on to priests in churches. Thereafter, Gregory left the kingdom and settled as a hermit. His son became a bishop and head of the church.

Despite several historical theories about Armenians, the period of 301 AD- the Christianization of Armenians and 404 AD- the initiation of the Armenian alphabets by Mesrop Mashtots will remain evidence of the Armenian history.

The clash of the Three-Byzantine, Arab, and Seljuk 

In 591, the Persians were crushed by the Emperor Maurice of Byzantine. The emperor captured a vast part of Armenian territory. In 629 AD, Emperor Heraclius completed the capture only to lose it to Muslim Arabs in 645 AD. Following this, the Armenians came under the Caliph rule. 

Being ruled by a prince, the region soon came under the pressure of being converted to Islam. However, a treaty was signed which allowed the Armenians to practice Christianity.

The Armenians went through an economic, political, and cultural renaissance between 884-1045 AD until captured by Byzantium.

Ani, a new capital was founded which had a population of 200,000 people and 1001 churches. Armenian history says that at this time the population of European capitals had not reached 20,000.

Armenia gained prosperity after Ani came into the picture. It is said that Armenia was said to have a political impact on neighboring countries after Ani was built. However, the country’s loyalty faded as the feudal system became powerful in the region,

The greater Armenia was finally conquered by the Seljuk Turks In 1071 AD. Fearing slavery and death, several families fled from Armenia to settled places like Poland, Cilicia, etc.

It is mention-worthy that among the escapists was Ani’s last king, Rupen, Gagik II’s relative who settled in Cilicia.

The Death of the Armenian Independence

In 1080, Rupen founded the Cilician kingdom also known as Little Armenia or Armenia Minor after arriving on the Mediterranean Sea’s Gulf of Alexandretta. 

Thus the Rupenid dynasty was found which was a part of the Bagratid dynasty. Sis Sis became the capital of the kingdom. Although being squeezed between several Muslim states, the Christian kingdom was able to establish a powerful relationship with important Italian maritime cities that have been prospering for three hundred years. Colonies were built by Genoa, Venice, and Pisa on the kingdom’s coast.

The Mamelukes invaded Cilicia in the latter part of the fourteenth century. In 1375 the capital of Sis was captured by them which brought an end to the ongoing reign. 

The last independent king of the Armenian kingdom, Leo VI escaped for exile in Paris where he breathed his last is 1393.

In the Armenian history, Armenia lost its sovereignty during this period for atleast the next six centuries and was ruled by several foreign kings.

The Dominating Rule of the Ottoman and Persian 

The Armenian culture lost itself in the period between the fall of the Cilician empire and the end of the seventeenth century. 

Tamerlane forced his rule in Eastern Europe and Central Anatolia at the end of the fourteenth century but soon his kingdom was crushed.

The Ottoman Empire and the Safavids dynasty in Central Iran rose during the middle of the fifteenth century. The two dynasties battled against each other for about a hundred years for capturing Caucasus areas and Eastern Anatolia. 

The fight came to an end with the victory of the Ottomans. In 1585, the Ottomans successfully conquered Armenia’s eastern part.

At the onset of the seventeenth century, the Ottomans were forced to leave the Armenian territory by Shah Abbas I who failed in his repeated attempts. 

While he was withdrawing from the kingdom, he demanded the Armenians migrate from Julfa city. 

Following the incident, the city of New Julfa was founded by the migrants in Esfahan where they had settled. The region prospered commercially and culturally throughout the 17th century and early 18th century. The economic activities took place from India to Britain and Italy.

In 1736, the enmity between Persians and Ottomans settled with the defeat of the Ottomans by the Persians. The Persians established rule over the southern part of Transcaucasia which included Armenia.

As portrayed in the history of Armenia, the Persian Armenia soon feel into the hands of Russia and became a part of the USSR due to the Treaties of Gulistan and Turkmanchay,1813 and 1828, respectively. 

The Armenian region which was still under the Ottomans aimed at getting independence. Revolution started in the latter part of the 19th century with the formation of revolutionary committees based on a model by the nihilists of Russia. 

Sultan Abdul-Hamid struck back fiercely and the first mass killing of the Armenians took place in 1894, August-September. 

The second Armenian massacre happened in 1895-1896 during which thousands of Armenians were slaughtered by Hamidiés. 

Thus started the Armenian massacre which was to continue for the next thirty years under the regime of various Turks.

The Massacre

As the ‘Union and Progress’ party rose, the Armenians living in Turkey continued to suffer. The ‘young Turks’ tried to establish the supremacy of the Turks in the Ottoman region.

As the Turks had lost the Ottoman region in Europe, hey decided that the only way to expand was to reunite the Turks of Central Asia namely Tatars, Uzbeks, Kazakhs etc. 

The idea of Pan-Turkism in the history of Armenia originated from two main cultures. The first ideology was that of Marxism which taught the Young Turks about equality which said that all Ottomans must be equal, if so then all Ottomans must be Turks and in turn Muslims.

The second ideology focused on the Turks of the steppes of Central Asia and their reunion as the expansion of the European region was getting out of hand.

The idea of Pan Turkism was opposed by Christians, Armenians, Indo-Europeans, and Kurdish minorities. The Kurds being Muslims had no problem in getting along with the Turks. But the Christians and Armenians being of completely different origins posed a problem in accepting the Turks. Thus, they had to be removed.

In a view to eliminating the Armenians, in 1909 the massacre of Adana was led by the Turks who grabbed the opportunity at the eruption of the first world war.

During this period, the young Turks started eliminating the Armenians referred to as “Metz Yeghèrn,’ the Great Crime, the Armenian Genocide.

The initial genocide of the 20th century took place between 1915 to 1923. The history of Armenia recorded the massacre of nearly 1.5 people. The Armenian genocide let to the deportation and death of people in the Syrian desert. 

The survivors of the Armenian Genocide sought refuge in the Republic of Armenia.

The Republic of Armenia was born after the battle of Sardaraparat in which the Armenians defeated the Turks. Many people also took refuge in Syria, Israel, Europe, the United States, Egypt, and Lebanon.

In 1920, after the war, the Treaty of Sèvres forced the Turks to free the Armenians and hand over Armenia’s Ottoman territories. 

The Turkish national movement rejected the treaty. The leader of the movement, Mustafa Kemal toppled the Ottoman sultanate and announced a national secular republic. 

On 24th September, the Turks with the help of the Russians waged the Armenian-Turkish war. The war ended with the Treaty of Alexandropol signed on 2nd December 1920. The treaty marked the victory of the Turks.

However, on December 4th, Yerevan of Armenia was occupied by the Soviet Eleventh Army. This marked the end of the independent Democratic Republic. 

Soviet Power 

Armenia became a part of the Soviet Union on 4th March 4th, 1922.

On 11 September 1922 the Treaty of Kars was signed which made Turkey give up the Batumi port in exchange for cities like Iğdır, Kars, and Ardahan.  

The communist economic system-aided Soviet Armenia. It became an industrial economy from an agricultural one. Several villages transformed into cities. The Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic broke down in 1936.

Thereafter, Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan gained the title of independent republics of the USSR.

During the fifteenth anniversary of the Armenian genocide, the Armenians protested on the streets for the incident to be recognized by the Russian government. However, the order was restored by the Soviet troops.

To steer clear of further protests, a monument was built honoring the ones who died in the Armenian genocide. 

In Yerevan, a memorial was constructed in 1967 which consisted of a 44-meter stele. This symbolized the rebirth of the Armenians. The monument also had twelve monoliths in a circle which signified the twelve provinces which now belonged to the Turkish territories. 

A flame burning in the center of the circle represents the memory of the deceased in the Armenian genocide. A 100-meters long memorial hall leading to the monument displays the names of the villages where the Armenian genocide took place.

Nagorno-Karabakh War

Armenia announced its independence on 23 August 1990 which was a year prior to the downfall of the Soviet Union. But Armenia’s independence wasn’t acknowledged officially until 21 September 1991. On this day the new Republic of Armenia was declared.

The history of Armenia mentions that the rivalry between Armenia and Azerbaijan regarding the Nagorno-Karabakh territory kept growing and resulted in war. The war continued even after a cease-fire notice in 1994 and is still unresolved.

Present Armenia 

Since Armenia’s independence, it has gone through several developments even after blocked borders with Azerbaijan and Turkey. It has been referred to as “the Tiger of the Caucasus” since then and is appreciated for its high growth rate. 

The region receives funds worth $1.5 billion every year which accounts for about 20% of the GDP. Although poverty exists, the government involves the export of powerful technology and human capital for development. 

However, after the violent history of Armenia, it has been able to establish itself as a country that promises growth and has successfully maintained friendly relations with neighboring countries like Russia, Iran, and Georgia.

The development is funded by the international network of expats of the diaspora, who pay $ 1.5 billion each year: about 20% of GDP. Poverty is still widespread: to fight it the government supports exports focused on high technology and human capital and, although in the last five years the economic boom has been resized, Armenia is still a country with a strong growth thanks to the friendly relations maintained with the other neighboring Countries: Russia, Georgia, and Iran.

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[microcosme11]

Typical breakfast scene at The Tuileries, by Mameluke Ali

[Translation by google and me]

A few moments after His Majesty was at the table, the Empress [Marie-Louise] appeared. She gave her husband a kiss and sat down on his right. It was I who was responsible for giving her an armchair. Most often when the Emperor left his salon, he was accompanied by some minister or other personage with whom he continued the conversation until the arrival of the Empress. After that, serious conversation was exchanged for cheerful chats. At dessert the King of Rome was announced, and Madame de Montesquiou, followed by an assistant governess, entered with the young prince in her arms. The Emperor kissed his son, talked to him, and the chat continued with the Empress, Madame de Montesquiou, and whoever was present. The meal finished, the Emperor took the little King in his arms and went towards the window to show him the passers-by and a group of curious people who usually stationed themselves in the garden under this window during the meal. The little scenes of paternal love only stopped when the Emperor and the Empress returned to the salon. Madame de Montesquiou and the assistant governess returned to the little prince's apartments. For my part, I went inside to the valet on duty. I really liked this service for the conversations I heard there. If I had kept a diary, there would have been quite a curious memorial about people and things.

Souvenirs du mameluck Ali (Louise-Étienne Saint Denis) sur l'empereur Napoléon, 1926.

google books

[shimadalluvia]

So did yall know this?

People know how Napoleon smelt with his nose

Apparently he ordered the same cologne forever and applied it to himself using a brush

It is said to have top notes of orange oil, peach, basil, bergamot and lemon; middle notes are cyclamen, lily, melon, jasmine and bulgarian rose; base notes are patchouli, tahitian vetiver, musk, sandalwood, oakmoss and cedar.

[cincinnatusvirtue]

1799: The Tiger of Mysore.  A tale of an 18th century Indian superpower, British imperialism and the rise of Arthur Wellesley, future Duke of Wellington.

220 years ago in 1799, the Indian Subcontinent was divided into several different polities, both native Indian kingdoms and European colonies.  A mix of Dutch, Portuguese, French and most consequentially British.  Europeans had interacted with India off and on since the days of Alexander the Great and the Macedonian Empire and subsequent Greco-Indian kingdoms in its wake.  By the late 18th century, the great maritime powers of Europe were invested in trade with India and were more importantly invested in an arms race with one another to expand territorial and commercial influence the world over, particularly between France and Britain.  They also sought to exploit the internal fighting and power vacuums created by changes amongst the various Indian kingdoms. 

The biggest change in 18th century Indian century politics was the decline of the Mughal Empire, an Islamic empire founded in the 16th century by Turco-Mongols who laid claim to Northern India by way of conquest and subsequently ruled over most of India.  They were in the position of ruling over a mostly Hindu country, though many were converted to Islam as well.  Overtime, a caste of Hindu warriors in the western-central and southern portions of the country, called the Marathas who had served as mercenary warriors for the Mughals arose and asserted their independence.  Not only did they gain their independence they expanded their power and the military stagnation and economic exhaustion of the Mughals led to a weakening and fracturing of their power.  Further wars with Nader Shah of Persia, saw the sack of Delhi and weakening of Mughal power and wealth.  Overtime, the Maratha Empire itself became decentralized and fought amongst itself and other powers which saw its own weakening by the late 18th century.

One power that grew increasingly influential in the 18th century was located in the south of India, the Kingdom of Mysore, having for centuries been vassals of the Vijayanagara Empire but by the 16th century it gained gradual independence and rose to autonomy in the 17th and 18th centuries.  A Hindu majority country ruled by the Wodeyar dynasty, its kings however by the mid-18th century were also weakened when power was gradually handed over to its prime ministers, much like the neighboring Maratha Empire, the Wodeyars became rulers in name only, with the prime ministers exerting near total control.  Enter, the Sultans of Mysore, Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan.  Men who would change the destiny of Mysore and India in the later half of the 18th century.

Hyder Ali was a soldier and Muslim, born into the Karnataka region of southern India, where Mysore was located among other kingdoms.   Ali served essentially as did his father as mercenaries in the service of the Rajas (kings) of Mysore.  Gradually in the wake of the Rajas own weakness and the subsequent transfer of power to Mysorean prime ministers, Hyder Ali due to much military and administrative success took over the country for himself.  Becoming the de-facto if not nominal ruler of Mysore by 1761, he established a court at Srirangapatna and expanded Mysore’s power.  Ali was said to have a great memory despite his illiteracy and had great financial accounting skills, this helped to stabilize Mysore’s economy which combined with diplomatic and military prowess lead Mysore to become the leading native power in the southern portion of the subcontinent.  Ali styled himself Sultan Hyder Ali and ruled Mysore for the next twenty one years.  During this time, Mysore increasingly came into the power struggle between France and Great Britain.  The British East India Company, supported by the British government and in treaties with local Indian powers, played the local rivalries against one another and gradually began expanding its power into Southern India from its base, the Presidency of Madras.

Britain’s East India Company had formed as a state chartered enterprise alongside the French and Dutch East India Companies for control of trade in Africa and Asia, gradually this turned into colonization and two events really saw British interest in India turn from trade monopolies into gradual imperialist ventures.  The first was the Seven Years War (1756-1763) which saw Britain gain control of many of the Kingdom of France’s colonial possessions the world over, including becoming the premiere European power in India.  The second was Britain’s defeat in the American Revolution, which saw, Mysore as a co-belligerent of the Americans and their Allies of France, the Dutch Republic and Spain in coalition against Britain.  Britain’s defeat in North America and its loss of the Thirteen Colonies that made up the USA, transferred Britain’s interest of imperial focus from North America to India, becoming its eventual crown jewel, figuratively and literally.

Hyder Ali had fought a successful war against the British in the 1760′s and by 1780 war was again sounding out between Mysore in alliance with France against Britain, linked in part with the American Revolution.  Mysore would be victorious once again against the British, in no small part to the great innovation in artillery, that was Mysore’s trademark weapon, rocket artillery known as the Mysorean rocket.  The rockets were not especially accurate but were devastating if launched in numbers.  The genius of their crude design was they were iron cased attached to bamboo shafts as opposed to the paper ones used elsewhere in the world.  The soft iron casing of the rockets gave them greater range and explosive power and damage when the black powder charge exploded.  Even more frightening was the use of attaching sharp instruments to their end which could maim or kill its targets before exploding and sending shrapnel elsewhere. 1780′s Battle of Pollilur which resulted in a Mysorean victory is the first time the British were privy to the Mysorean rocket and its effects.  Britain was again defeated by 1784 on terms favorable to the Mysoreans. 

1782 saw Hyder Ali die and he was succeeded by his son Tipu Sultan, who thanks to his role in the Second Anglo-Mysore War and the use of the tiger in his personal standard became known as the “Tiger of Mysore”.  A nickname earned due to his fierce opposition to the British, his tiger hunting prowess and appreciation for symbolism of the animal.  His summer palace had ornate paintings celebrating his victory over the British at Pollilur.  Also he had a mechanical toy crank operated pipe organ made of ornate wood designed in the form of a tiger mauling a European man made for his entertainment, known as Tipu’s Tiger. 

Tipu continued his father’s mix of diplomacy and aggression in foreign affairs, playing the French and other Indian powers against the British.  He also upped the living standards of every day Mysoreans, reformed the coinage, calendar and government apparatus of his kingdom and improved the rocket artillery innovations introduced by his father.  Tipu helped make Mysore one of the absolute wealthiest countries on Earth.  Mysore became a leading agricultural and textile producer especially of fine silks.  Mysore under Tipu became so wealthy that the per capita incomes were on average higher than even in Europe in the Netherlands and Britain in the 1820′s.  Tipu also garnered controversy over his religious policies however, he was a devout Muslim himself but practically speaking ruled a Hindu majority kingdom.  He appointed many Hindus to positions of power in his administration and gave land grants to as many as 156 Hindu temples as examples of his religious tolerance.  On the other hand evidence of massacres, imprisonment and forced conversion to Islam of both Hindus from outside his kingdom as well as of Indian Christians, notably the Catholics of Mangalore and captured British soldiers are cited as evidence of his cruelty.  His legacy of religious tolerance is a matter of debate into the modern day.

Things went well for Tipu and Mysore until the Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-1792).  This saw Mysore’s first major defeat when Britain with a coalition of Maratha Empire, Kingdom of Travancore and the Nizam of Hyderabad all with unresolved issues against Mysore defeated Tipu Sultan in the 1792 Siege of Srirangapatna, led by General Charles Cornwallis, famous for his defeat at Yorktown during the American Revolution.  This in some ways redeemed Cornwallis for his defeat in America.  The battle saw the use of Mysorean rockets en masse once more.  However, the British advanced and knowing without negotiation utter defeat was at hand, Tipu agreed to negotiate a peace.  He ceded half of Mysore’s territory divided among the British and their allies and also handed over two of his sons as hostages to Cornwallis to be cared for by the British to ensure good behavior and compliance on Tipu’s part.

Mysore never fully recovered from this defeat and it was only a matter of time before war broke out again.  The fourth and final Anglo-Mysore War broke out in 1798, now in the context of the struggle between the French Republic and British lead coalitions against the French Revolution.  Tipu turned to his traditional French allies once more.  In 1794 in touch with the French Republic under the auspices of French military officers, Tipu established the Jacobin Club of Mysore, the first Revolutionary Republican club of its kind in Indian history.  He symbolically planted a “liberty tree” in solidarity with the French and was made an honorary Citizen Tipu or Tipoo.  In 1798, French General Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt, then nominally part of the Ottoman Empire, but really under the centuries old rule of the Mameluke dynasty which French forces defeated.  Napoleon’s stated goal was to secure Egypt and the Levant as a base from which to advance onto British India and link up with Mysore and defeat the British once and for all, delivering a blow to their most precious colony which would end the war in France and Mysore’s favor.  Napoleon conquered Egypt and parts of the Levant but his fleet was defeated in the Battle of the Nile by the British Royal Navy, effectively stranding his army in the Middle East.  Though he would escape in 1799 and initiate the coup that lead to his rise as First Consul and later French Emperor coming to dominate European politics for nearly the next two decades.  Without French help, Mysore was left to its own.  Its army was still formidable and Tipu was determined but 1799 was to be the end of it all. 

The British Governor-General of India in 1799 was Richard Wellesley, 2nd Earl of Mornington of the Anglo-Irish family from Dublin.  His younger brother, Arthur Wellesley, had found structure in an otherwise aimless life in a military career, fighting against the French in the Low Countries in the earlier part of the decade.  By 1797, Arthur had transferred to India to assist his brother and the British East India Company expand its power, he was made a Colonel and set out with his regiment, the 33rd Regiment of Foot infantry in spring of 1799 under a larger British force made of British regulars, British administered Indian regiments (sepoys) and supported by the Nizam of Hyderabad’s army once more, they marched on Srirangapatna once again.  The battle was a last stand and fierce, with the Mysorean rockets launched en masse one last time.  Wellesley himself suffered a minor wound, finally a breach was made in the walls of the fortress and the British advanced in, volleys of fire and hand to hand combat took place and Tipu Sultan, armed with his ornate sword and modern European blunderbuss flintlock rifle fought to the very end, killed by a musket ball lodged in his head above the right ear and lodged in his left cheek.  Wellesley himself pronounced Tipu dead upon checking his body on the scene.  The Tiger of Mysore was no more, dead aged 48 and Mysore was conquered.  In the aftermath of the battle, some British soldiers were engaging in looting and pillaging of the city and rape of Indian women.  Wellesley, later famed for the discipline he attempted to instill in his troops, had troops he found engaged in this behavior, tried and executed by hanging for their crimes.  Tipu’s body was buried honorably next to his father the following day.  His sword lost in battle later found it’s way into British hands and his automated toy organ (Tipu’s Tiger) was confiscated by the British and is on exhibit to this day in the British Victoria and Albert Museum in London.

For his part, Wellesley was made Governor of British Mysore in the wake of his victory.  His first step to military renown was achieved here.  He would stay in India for a few more years, greatly expanding British control there, most notably defeating a large army of the Maratha Empire at the Battle of Assaye in 1803.  Before he would return to Europe and face Napoleonic France in the successful Peninsular War in Spain of 1808-1814, then most famously defeating Napoleon Bonaparte himself by leading the British and Allied forces at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815,  he was made the Duke of Wellington and subsequently served as British Prime Minister.  He always remarked it was his time in India, that he truly discovered himself and learned the lessons he later applied to armies under his command against Napoleon.

One of Tipu’s and Mysore’s lasting influences on the British military and military development in general was the use of the Mysorean rockets, the British studied the iron casings and under William Congreve, developed the Congreve rocket, based on descriptions of the Mysorean originals.  The British began employing Congreve rocket regiments of artillery in Napoleonic battles as well as the War of 1812 against the United States, it helped contribute to advances in later missile and artillery technology up on through the modern day.  So while the Tiger of Mysore may long be gone, his legacy in many ways, survives.

[marco-martello]

Charles Louis TIFFANY

On the Way Between Old and New Cairo, Citadel Mosque of Mohammed Ali and Tombs of the Mamelukes

[artist-tiffany]

On the Way between Old and New Cairo, Citadel Mosque of Mohammed Ali, and Tombs of the Mamelukes, 1872, Louis Tiffany

[mentalnahigijena]

Mameluci = Skalibe = Slaveni !

Robovi-ratnici srednjovjekovnog islama zbacili su svoje gospodare, porazili Mongole i krstaše i uspostavili dinastiju koja je trajala 300 godina.Mameluci su vladali Egiptom i Sirijom od 1250. do 1517. godine, kada su Osmanlije ugasile njihovu dinastiju. Ali mameluci su se prvi put pojavili u Abasidskom kalifatu u devetom veku, a čak i nakon njihovog zbacivanja od strane Osmanlija, nastavili su da čine važan deo egipatskog islamskog društva i postojali kao uticajna grupa do 19. veka. Uništili su krstaška kraljevstva Outremera i spasili Siriju, Egipat i sveta mjesta islama od Mongola. Učinili su Kairo dominantnim gradom islamskog svijeta u kasnijem srednjem vijeku, a pod ovom naizgled nepismenom vlašću vojnika-državnika, zanatstvo, arhitektura i učenost su cvjetali. Ipak, dinastija ostaje praktično nepoznata mnogima na Zapadu.Dinastija je imala dvije faze. Od 1250. do 1381. Bahri klika je proizvela mamelučke sultane; od 1382. do 1517. dominirali su mameluci Burgi. Ove grupe su dobile imena po glavnim pukovovima koje su Mameluci obezbijedili za posljednjeg ajjubidskog sultana as-Saliha kojem su služili prije svrgavanja 1250. godine; puk Bahirya ili River Island, baziran na riječnom ostrvu u centru Kaira i puku Burgi ili Tower.Riječ Mameluk znači 'u vlasništvu' i Mameluci nisu bili porijeklom iz Egipta, već su uvijek bili robovi vojnici, uglavnom Turci Qipchak iz centralne Azije. U principu (iako ne uvijek u praksi) mameluk nije mogao prenijeti svoju imovinu ili vlasništvo svom sinu, zaista, sinovima je u teoriji bila uskraćena prilika da služe u mamelučkim pukovnijama, tako da je grupa morala biti stalno nadopunjavana iz vanjskih izvora. Bahri Mameluci su uglavnom bili starosedeoci iz južne Rusije, a Burgi su se sastojali uglavnom od Čerkeza sa Kavkaza. Kao stepski narod, imali su više zajedničkog s Mongolima nego sa narodima Sirije i Egipta među kojima su živjeli. I držali su svoje garnizone odvojeno, ne miješajući se sa stanovništvom na teritorijama. Savremeni arapski istoričar Abu Šama zabilježio je nakon mamelučke pobjede nad Mongolima kod Ayn Jaluta 1260. da,Dječaci od oko 13 godina bi bili zarobljeni iz područja na sjeveru Perzijskog carstva i obučeni da postanu elitna snaga za ličnu upotrebu sultana ili viših gospodara. Arapska riječ Ghulam (dječak) ponekad se koristila za tjelohranitelje koje bi oni postali. Dječake bi poslao kalif ili sultan da učvrste svoju vladavinu čak do Španije (Venecija i Đenova su bili glavni igrači u njihovom transportu uprkos papinim zabranama) i prodati ih zapovjednicima islamskih vlada u regiji. Pod svojim novim gospodarima bili su oslobođeni, prešli na islam i prošli intenzivnu vojnu obuku.Rukopis iz kasnog mamelučkog doba o obuci s kopljem, oko 1500.Islamsko društvo, poput onog u srednjovjekovnom kršćanstvu, poprimilo je oblik teorijske piramide vjernosti s kraljem ili sultanom na vrhu i brojnim sitnim gospodarima u njegovoj osnovi, pri čemu je svaki gospodar iznad njih imao prava lojalnosti nad njima. U vojnim društvima 13. stoljeća viši gospodari ili amiri održavali su veliki broj Mameluka, a najviše ih je držao sultan. Tokom mamelučkog sultanata, sukcesija i borba za moć da se ospori sukcesija bili su zasnovani uglavnom na veličini baze moći kandidata, u smislu broja ljudi u oružju i gospodara klijenata, koje je mogao prikupiti.Mameluci, koji su u mladosti oduzeti od svojih porodica i nisu imali rodbinskih veza u svojim novim domovinama, bili su lično zavisni od svog gospodara. To je državi Mameluka, odvojenoj od svog matičnog društva, dalo čvrstinu koja joj je omogućila da preživi napetosti plemena i ličnih ambicija, kroz uspostavljanje međuzavisnosti između nižih redova i narednika i viših lordova.A u centru mamelučka politika bila je krvava i brutalna. Mameluci nisu trebali biti u stanju naslijediti bogatstvo ili moć izvan vlastite generacije, ali pokušaji stvaranja loze su se dogodili i svako naslijeđe najavljivano je međusobnom borbom. Čistke viših gospodara i suparnika bile su uobičajene, a sultani su obično koristili nabijanje na kolac i razapinjanje da bi kaznili one osumnjičene za djela lèse majesté ili spletke.U teoriji, mamelukov život ga je pripremio za ništa drugo osim za rat i odanost svom gospodaru. Veliki naglasak je stavljen na Furūsiyya – riječ koja se sastoji od tri elementa: 'ulum (nauka), funun (umjetnost) i adab (književnost) – konjičkih vještina. The Furūsiyyanije bio sličan viteškom kodeksu hrišćanskog viteza utoliko što je uključivao moralni kodeks koji obuhvata vrline kao što su hrabrost, hrabrost, velikodušnost i velikodušnost; ali se bavilo i upravljanjem, obukom i brigom o konjima koji su nosili ratnika u bitku i omogućili mu sportske aktivnosti u slobodno vrijeme. Takođe je uključivao taktiku konjice, tehnike jahanja, oklop i streličarstvo. Neki tekstovi čak su govorili o vojnoj taktici: formiranju armija, upotrebi vatrenih i dimnih zavesa. Obrađeno je čak i liječenje rana.Mamelučka dinastija je pažljivo kodificirala Furūsiyya , i stvoreni su prekrasni ilustrovani primjeri. Ove knjige takođe nose znak mongolskog uticaja; mnoge stranice su ukrašene lotosima i feniksima, motivima prenesenim iz Kine kroz Pax Mongolica .Mameluci su gotovo u potpunosti živjeli unutar svojih garnizona, a njihove slobodne aktivnosti pokazuju upečatljivu korespondenciju s mnogo ranijim komentarom vojnog pisca Vegecija da su rimske vježbe bile beskrvne bitke, a njihove bitke krvave vježbe. Polo je bio glavni među njima za Mameluke; sa svojom potrebom za kontrolom konja, uskim zaokretima i naletima brzine, oponašao je vještine potrebne na bojnom polju. Takmičenja u streličarstvu sa konjima, akrobacije konja i borbene predstave slične evropskim nadmetanjima često su se održavale i do dva puta sedmično. Mamelučki sultan Baybars je izgradio hipodrom u Kairu za održavanje ovih igara i polo utakmica.Prilika Mameluka da svrgnu svoje gospodare došla je krajem 1240-ih, u vrijeme kada je kurdska dinastija Ajubida, koju je osnovao Saladin 1170-ih, dostigla modus vivendisa državama krstaša; sukobi, a ne otvoreni rat, bio je red dana u Siriji i Svetoj zemlji. Međutim, događaji na istoku počeli su da utiču na region. Mongoli su u istočnim stepama napadali zapadna kineska plemena i napredovali u južnu Rusiju, potiskujući druge narode na zapad. Godine 1244., uz prešutnu podršku Ajubida u Kairu, Jerusalim je pao u ruke lutajuće grupe Kvarezmijana, grupe istočne Perzije koja je i sama bježala od mongolskog uništenja njihovog novonastalog carstva. Jedno od njihovih prvih radnji bilo je uništavanje grobnica latinskih kraljeva Jerusalima. Kao odgovor, Luj IX od Francuske sazvao je križarski rat (sedmi) iako ni papstvo ni bilo koji drugi veliki kršćanski monarh nisu bili potaknuti na akciju. Umjesto direktnog napada na Svetu zemlju,foto: Grobnice mameluka, Kairo, Egipat, 1910-te.