#what conclusions will historians draw based on what survives

[onewithblankets]

I know a lot of old myths now we know next to nothing about bc there’s so much cultural context surrounding them that was lost to time bc why would anybody want to write down common sense? But like do you think people thousands of years into the future will not know Humpty Dumpty was an egg.

[grinoir]

Religious Medievalism: “Stregheria”, Wicca and History - part 1

[TN: This article will break the Introduction to Stregoneria series for a second, but I believe it’s important to set things into perspective about both Witchcraft and this blog. My goal is to put out content, translated or redacted by me, in order to give people the correct historical information. I see a lot people on TikTok messing with things they don’t know, appropriating and distorting practices and cultures and profiting off of it. The only focus of this blog is the practice and the history behind it, I don’t want to “put people down”, I want to make the information available so you won’t hurt yourselves.

Also, I do not support fa***sm, na**sm or any other movement/ideology that oppresses and discriminates people. I’m specifiying this because I’ve received an anonymous ask about it and it kind of hurt just reading it. I hope this will clarify things and make whoever asked me that more confortable with my blog and my content. I’m a history nerd Strega, nothing more.

This article will be a translation, synthesis and re-elaboration of the following articles

https://tradizioneitaliana.wordpress.com/2020/11/12/medievalismo-religioso-stregheria-wicca-e-storia/

https://medievaleggiando.it/la-legittimazione-storica-della-wicca-margaret-murray-e-la-manipolazione-delle-fonti/

https://medievaleggiando.it/il-vangelo-delle-streghe-e-linizio-della-wicca-il-fascino-di-un-falso-storico/

The first being a rectification of the two that follow.

This article will be divided in two parts because it’s way too long to read and to translate, i’m drained af]

THE DEBUNKING OF MURRAY

Margaret Alice Murray (1863-1963) was a British Anthropologist and Egyptologist, well known in the academic environment for her contributions in the studies of folklore. Even if she was very criticized and her reputation as an historian was poor, her work became popular bestsellers from 1940 onward.

The most well-known and controversial one is “The Witch-Cult in the Western Europe” published in 1921. In this book, Murray alleges that there was some sort of secret model of pagan resistance to Christianity spreaded all across Europe, and that the witches’ hunt and the proof presented to the trials were an attempt to eliminate a rival cult.

This book was clearly influenced by “Satanism and Witchcraft” by Jules Michelet, that alleged that Medieval Witchcraft was an act of popular rebellion against the oppression of feudalism and the Roman Catholic church, that took the form of a secret religion inspired by paganism and organized mainly by women.

To support her narrative, Murray chooses to analyze some of the trials that took place during the great hunt and employs 15 primary sources, mostly British or Scottish (not paneuropean, or sources from the european continent), that describe famous trials. Murray’s analysis of the Somerset Trials in 1664 offer a good example of her work ethics; quoting the testimony of Elizabeth Styles:

“At their meeting they have usually Wine or good Beer, Cakes, Meat or the like. They eat and drink really when they meet in their bodies, dance also and have Musick. The Man in black sits at the higher end, and Anne Bishop usually next him. He useth some words before meat, and none after, his voice is audible, but very low.”

Murray conveniently seems to “forget” to quote the immediately preceding phrase:

”That at every meeting before the Spirit vanisheth away, he appoints the next meeting place and time, and at his departure there is a foul smell.”

Other details offered by Styles are omitted, like when she alleges that the Devil presented to her in the shape of a dog or a cat or a fly, that the Devil offered her followers an oinment to use on their heads and wrists that made it possible to move them from a place to another. Or that sometimes the reunion involved only the spirits of the witches, while their bodies stayed at home.

Murray was fully aware of the fantasy element in the testimonies she included in her books, but she was able, by deliberately manipulating historical sources, to make people believe the fake narrative that a Medieval religion of witches with covens, rites and their own beliefs that relentlessy opposed Christianity really existed.

In her “The God of the Witches”, published in 1933 and clearly written for a commercial audience, she further broadened the scope of her claims on the witches’ cult. In this book, she alleges that until the C17th BCE the there was a religion, older than Christianity, that kept existing in all of Western Europe. Said religion, was focused on the worship of a two-faced horned god, known to the Romans ad Diano; this god presided the witches’ gathering and was mistaken by the Inquisition of the Devil, conclusion that made them associate witchcraft with a satanic cult.

Murray claims the existence of a *specific* non-christian organized cult spread all across Europe that worshipped Diano and relentlessly opposed the Roman Catholic church, but the sources she quotes are late and recount the flattening of the various “pagan” cults to the assimilation with the christian Devil, operated by the Church.

In fact, the Devil that the trials report on, depending on the religion, overlapped with different figures: in British and Scottish traditions the Devil was the result of the demonization of the King of Elphame. In the Basque country, the Devil substituted Mari. In Northern Italy it overlapped with the Donna del Buon Gioco. This means that the “Northern Italian Devil” is different from the “British Devil” and the “Basque Devil”.

This “Devil” is a figure that flattens everything and overlapped and substituted so many different figures, depending on the religion and the figure it ended up overlapping with.

Therefore, Murray’s narrative of a paneuropean cult of the Horned God stems from the analysis of late sources and to the false equivalence of the Devil that presided the Ludus (Sabba) in Scotland (where he masks the King of Elphame) and the Devil of other countries (where he masks other entities).

Since the Devil isn’t the same entity in all of Europe, the narrative of a counter-christianity organized paneuropean cult of prehistoric origin falls too. Instead, what we’re dealing with are Medieval, non-christian rielaborations of different remainders of the Religions of the Gentiles that survived in the Christian age and were absorbed in the legend of the Faery Procession/Procession of the Dominae Nocturnae first, and the legend of the Ludus (Sabba) later.

The following quote by Ronald Hutton, English historian who specialises in Early Modern Britain, British folklore, pre-Christian religion and Contemporary Paganism and professor at the University of Bristol, confirms this:

“Over a quarter of a century ago, I adopted the expression “Pagan survivals” to describe elements of ancient Pagan culture that had persisted in later Christian societies. In doing so, I was drawing a distinction between such survivals, of which there seemed to be many, and “surviving Paganism”; that is the continued self-conscious practice of the older religions, of which there seemed to be none. This point was worth making because even in the 1980s, there was a persisting belief, based on outdated academic texts, that Paganism had survived as a living force among the common people in much of medieval Europe: it was widespread in other scholarly disciplines than history, let alone among the general public. My formula and approach was adopted by other authors in the 1990s. During that decade, however, a reaction set in against it among historians who preferred to stress the comprehensive Christianization of medieval European societies and to relegate elements that had hither to been identifed as of pagan origin to categories of religiously neutral folklore or of lay Christianity. Some emphasized that the undoubted tendency of some Christians at the time to condemn such beliefs and practices as pagan was a hallmark of a highly atypical, reforming, intolerant and evangelical strain of churchman. Michael’s system of classification, in this volume, may be said to take its place in this, apparently now dominant, set of scholarly attitudes. Revisiting the issue myself, I am inclined to meet it halfway. I am startingto agree that to speak of aspects of medieval culture as “Pagan” might indeed be misleading and inadequate. Moreover, it would be especially inappropriate to characterize fgures such as the lady of the night rides, the fairy queen or the Cailleach as “Pagan survivals” when they seem like medieval or post-medieval creations. However, I have equal diffculty in describing them simply and straightforwardly as “Christian” because of their total lack of reference to any aspect of Christianity, including theology, cosmology, scripture and liturgy; all of them would indeed fit far more comfortably into a Pagan world-picture. […] It may be that the old polarized labels are becoming inadequate to describe a medieval and early modern religious and quasi-religious world that is coming to seem even more complex, exciting and interesting than it had seemed to be before.”

Also Michael Ostling, religious studies scholar focusing on the history, historiography, and representation of witches and witchcraft, confirms this in Fairies, Demons, and Nature Spirits: “Small Gods” at the Margin of Christendom, published in 2018.

“Christians encompass aspects of their prior paganism both by inversion and revaluation. But where traditional spirits remain salient to a Christianized culture in encompassed or inverted form, their ongoing reality ought not to be counted by scholars as a pagan survival—though it is likely to be so construed by Christians themselves. Such “surviving” spirits are not just marginalized or diabolized pagan remnants, they are continually re-performed, recreated through Christian ritual and Christian discourse. We find such re-creation of the small gods throughout Christian history, and throughout this volume: when the Urapmin drive out the motobil by the power of the Holy Spirit, when Andean people frame their propitiation of the yawlu with devotion to the Christian God, when Mami Water appears primarily as a trope of Pentecostal deliverance ministry, when thirteenth-century Frenchwomen see, in an unoffcial Christian saint, their best hope of negotiating the return of their stolen babies from the follets, when the brownie and Robin Goodfellow appear in prayers of protection against them, in assertions of their diabolical status, or in tolerant mention of superstitious old wives who stillbelieve in such “harmless devils,” when cunningwomen insist that they only use “good devils” or that the fairies who facilitate their divination have no fear of the cross, this is because the beings involved have succeeded in taking up a niche within Christian discourse. The “good people” have not departed, have not been driven out by the sound of church-bells or the smell of gasoline. There are no pagan survivals: small gods are Christian creations with which to think the limits of Christianity.”

In essence, Murray’s version of events that describes Paganism as an anti-church, anti-society isn’t backed by any historical evidence.

Sources:

https://tradizioneitaliana.wordpress.com/2020/11/12/medievalismo-religioso-stregheria-wicca-e-storia/

https://medievaleggiando.it/la-legittimazione-storica-della-wicca-margaret-murray-e-la-manipolazione-delle-fonti/

https://medievaleggiando.it/il-vangelo-delle-streghe-e-linizio-della-wicca-il-fascino-di-un-falso-storico/

Michael Ostling. Fairies, Demons, and Nature Spirits: ‘Small Gods’ at the Margins of Christendom. Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.

[dwellordream]

“The names of women were less important than the names of men in early medieval society. We discern this phenomenon in the Old Norse poem The List of Rig, in which a god taking on the name Rig visited representative homes of the three social classes of early medieval Scandinavia: slaves, farmers, and magnates.

The poem gives the names of the twelve sons of the representatives magnates, Jarl and his wife Erna, but it does not mention any daughters, an omission that a recent editor understands as deliberate. This was a patriarchal society, in which, essentially, only men were important enough to be commemorated by having their names chiseled into stone. Women were subordinate to men.

This uncompromising image of male domination is, however, considerably tempered when one looks closely at the evidence - for example, the three thousand or so runestones we know of from Scandinavia. ...Almost 12 percent of runestones known from Scandinavia were, according to their inscriptions, erected by women acting alone. An additional 15 percent were commissioned by women together with men. These statistics warn us against drawing glib conclusions about the relationship between women and men in Viking Age Scandinavia.

...It is a cliche that children died in devastatingly large numbers before the invention of modern medicine. In Sweden’s oldest reliable population statistics, from the period 1751-1800, for example, about 40 percent of children died before they were four years old. The Viking Age appears to be different, though.

...Only about 10 percent of the graves in the grave fields of Swedish Viking Age farms were occupied by children. This number should be compared to the corresponding figure from the early Iron Age (roughly 500 BCE - 500 CE), when 30 percent of the graves were dug for children. Similarly, a large inventory of 320 Viking Age graves in Denmark showed that only 9 percent contained the remains of children.

...Perhaps the bodies of the dead children were disposed of in some way other than burial in the usual grave field. A Viking Age cemetery in Fjalkinge, Scania, which has been carefully examined, provides a more representative image of child mortality. Of 128 burials, 79 were of children, most of whom died in their first tear. If a child survived to five years old, she had a great chance of reaching forty.

...A reason to think that the Viking Age was not a period of relative health with low child mortality is that those who lived to an adult age were not as tall as people in previous and later periods. A person’s adult height depends partially in the quality of the nutrition she received as a child. ...there is a correlation between wealth and being tall.

...There are few differences between the graves in which men were buried and those of women. Men’s graves are typically a little larger and more prominent, while women were attired for burial with more jewelry and dress details of metal. Men’s graves from before the conversion to Christianity (which outlawed grave goods) contain bones from more animal species than women’s graves. Bones from dog, sheep, and roosters appear often in graves for both sexes, whereas horse and pig bones typically are found only in men’s graves.

...What men and women had in common, irrespective of social class, was that they were much affected by disease. ...The molars (grinders) in their mouths were worn down almost to the gum, because they ate bread, porridge, and other products made from grain that had been threshed on the ground. Dust and sand were mixed in with the grain, which wears down the teeth.

...Some historians have have suggested that women played an important role in Scandinavia during the Viking Age, for they would have stayed at home managing the farms while their husbands sailed out to raid as Vikings. This conclusion is based on the idea that, during the Viking Age, all or most able-bodied men in Scandinavia were Vikings and left home for months or years on end.

This is a gross exaggeration. The Viking raiding parties were small and, as far as we know, to a large part made up of young men who did not own much, if any, landed property, and who were typically not married. The reason they went out raiding was that they had no farms to manage at home.

...Women in any case played important roles that had nothing to do with their husbands being away on Viking raids. In premodern agricultural societies, the daily work of farms required the constant participation of both men and women. A farm could not really function if it was not headed by a couple, which is the reason why widowed family heads typically remarried very quickly...

...Notable in women’s graves are the many tools for textile work, such as spindles for spinning and warp weights from looms. The work of producing clothes was women’s work in the Viking Age, as in many other periods of history. Textiles were made both from animal fibers, especially wool, and from vegetable fibers such as flax and hemp. The processes that made clothing from sheep’s wool and growing flax plants was long and time-consuming.

Scissors had been introduced to Scandinavia in the first century CE, but the old method of tearing the wool from the sheep with one’s hands was still in use in the Viking Age. The wool then had to be cleaned, sorted, and combed to produce the long fibers that could be spun into worsted yarn. By the Viking Age, the sheep of Scandinavia had been bred to produce white wool (before the Common Era they had been black, grey, or brown).

The harvesting and preparation of flax to make linen was similarly labor-intensive. The combed wool or flax was put on a distaff and was spun by hand with a spindle. ...The thread was then woven, typically on a vertical loom with weights keeping the warp straight, producing twill fabric. We can count on this being done in every homestead of Scandinavia, requiring a great deal of work from the women of the family. ...The cloth was colored with dye from a variety of vegetable sources: woad (blue), madder (red), and perhaps walnut shells (brown).

By the Viking Age, well-to-do families no longer needed to produce their own cloth; high-quality wool and linen fabrics were produced commercially in several Scandinavian centers, in western Norway, on Gotland, on Zealand, and in Finland. For anyone who could afford to purchase such ready-made textiles (and they appear only in the graves of the well-to-do), it would be an enormous saving of work. Women cut the fabric and made it into clothes. Early medieval clothes in Scandinavia were mainly made of wool and linen.”

- Anders Winroth, “At Home on the Farm.” in The Age of the Vikings

[raeynbowboi]

Dating Disney: The Black Cauldron

The Black Cauldron is a 1985 Grimdark fantasy movie based primarily on the first two novels of the Chronicles of Prydain series by Lloyd Alexander written between 1964-1968. A primary reference and inspiration behind the series being the Mabinogion, a collection of early Celtic myths written in Middle Welsh. The character names also follow a Welsh naming conventions as Fflewdder Fflam uses the “Double F” found in the Welsh language, as a single F by itself makes a [v] sound in the Welsh language. The name Taran is also Welsh, meaning Thunder. So the movie is very neatly rooted in Wales, or Welsh-speaking Albion.

The Mabinogion

The Mabinogion is comprised of 4 main branches recounting Welsh mythology, compiled in the late 12th-13th centuries based on older oral traditions likely dating back to some time between 1050-1225. However, there are many suggestions as to when the stories might date from. (To hear a story from the Mabinogion, check out Red’s summary of Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed.)

Now, you may be wondering “why is there only 1 book on all Welsh mythology?” and I’m glad you hypothetically asked because it’s time to blame the Christians. Seriously, because Celtic mythology is loaded with god-like figures, Christian interpreters when they came to Albion censored or outright destroyed stories that implied that there was more than their God. Figures such as the Irish Tuatha de Dannan, which were godlike ancestral figures, had to be recontexualized as Faeries, Spirits, or Angels in order to avoid censorship by the Christian monks who transcribed these myths. Brigid, a very important Irish goddess, was Christianized into the figure of Saint Bridgette. This was actually an attempt by Christian missionaries to ease the pagans into Christianity. Essentially the mindset of “yeah, you can worship your holy figures, but uh, cut it out with the holy divine aspect. We can’t have that. They’re clearly not as top tier as our God.” 

You may remember from my Sword in the Stone discussion that I mentioned that Rome occupied Albion before Christianity wormed its way in, and you may be wondering, were the Romans this bad? Haha, clearly you underestimate how awful medieval Christians were. No, the Romans just viewed foreign pantheons as extensions of their pantheon. You have a sun god? So do we. It must be the same god with a different name. This is what’s referred to as Interpretatio Romana. So the Celtic Sun God Belenus would be referred to by the Romans as Apollo Belenus. It’s the same god, but the Roman name always came first. Compared to what is known as Interpretatio Christiana, which boils down to ‘you’re worshiping Satan in the form of a false idol. Stop that.’ So, when I say that our lack of written accounts of Welsh mythology is entirely the fault of the Christians, I’m completely sincere in that statement because the Romans didn’t censor Celtic myths or history, only the Christians did.

The Black Cauldron and Mythological Parallels

Prydain

It might sound like a generic fantasy name, but the name Prydain actually comes from the Welsh name for Great Britain, Prydain Fawr. Unfortunately, the term Great Britain dates to 1707. However, Prydain is also the medieval name for the island, as the Welsh never referred to the Island as Albion.

Henwen

Literally meaning “Old White” in Welsh, Henwen is a sow under the care of Coll, a pigkeeper for Dallwyr Dallben. In the Chronicles of Prydain, Coll is a character, but in the Disney film, Taran seems to have absorbed Coll’s role as pigkeeper. However, the fact that he refers to himself as an assistant pigkeeper could still mean that he is ranked below an off-screen Coll. However, the Henwen of Welsh mythology could not predict the future. It was known that Henwen was to birth something terrible, and so she was chased off a cliff into the sea in Cornwall. She survived however and went on to give birth to many unusual things, including a cat, a wolf, an eagle, and a single grain each of wheat, rye, and barley. And three bees. I really wish I was making this up.

Gurgi

Gurgi’s name might take inspiration from Gwrgi Garwlwyd, whose name literally means man-dog rough-grey. He was a warrior in Welsh Arthurian Legend, and was possibly a werewolf. Gwrgi was a monster that killed a man every day, and two on Saturday so he would not kill on Sunday. The Gurgi in the books is far more monstrous looking with horns, but Gurgi in the Disney film retains the dog-like traits of Gwrgi.

The Black Cauldron

Known in Welsh mythology as Pair Dadeni or “the Cauldron of Rebirth”, it is referenced in the second branch of the Mabinogion. Like in the movie, the cauldron has the power to revive the dead, and is destroyed when a living person is thrown into it, in the mythological case, Efnisien pretends to be a corpse and is thrown into the cauldron for revival, causing the cauldron to be destroyed. There are other similar magical cauldrons in Welsh and Irish mythology, including the cauldrons of Arawn and Diwrnach, which would not boil the food of cowards, and Ceriddwen’s Cauldron of Inspiration, which caused those who drank from it to gain infinite wisdom. There is also The Cauldron of the Dagda in Irish mythology. One of the 4 Treasures of the Tuatha de Dannan, the Cauldron of the Dagda was stored in the mythical city of Muirius, and no man would ever leave the cauldron hungry, for it produced infinite food.

The Horned King

In the novels, the Horned King is a minor villain, subjugated to Arawn, God of Death. However, in Welsh mythology, Arawn is not a death god. Rather, Arawn is king of Annwn, the Welsh Otherworld. Aka, the Faerieworld. See, this is another example of Christians mucking up translations and trying to force other religions to reflect Christianity, so Annwn is often treated as the Underworld of Celtic mythology, but considering Pwyll wanders into Annwn completely by accident, I don’t think that’s how it was interpreted in traditional texts. The Horned King may also draw inspiration from the Horned God, Cernunnos. Little is known about Cernunnos due to being a very ancient god, but his role as a horned god of the wilderness has historians guessing that he’s one of the oldest gods or divine archetypes in human history, as ancient horned gods pop up with surprising regularity in older religions: namely Baphomet and Pan. Cernunnos is also sometimes but not always folded in with the figure of the All-Father as a sort of father to all creation in Gallo-Celtic paganism. Cernunnos is often regarded as a god of nature and the wilds, but is also a psychopomp god that guides the dead to the afterlife, and maybe is also a god of death and rebirth as a part of life. Again, this is kind of very uncertain because of just how ancient Cernunnos is, so don’t take this interpretation as law. But despite how uncertain we are about what all this figure represents, he’s a very interesting deity none-the-less, and very likely contributed to the Christian idea of the devil as a horned figure with goat legs. As a seemingly undead creature, the Horned King may draw parallels to a creature known as a Revenant. A creature found in Celtic folklore, a Revenant is a vengeful undead that seeks to torment all life until it has found the person who wronged it while it was alive and exacts its revenge. However, it should be noted that in the books, the Horned King is a living man wearing a horned skull mask, whereas the movie version is very clearly a corpse.

Taran’s Sword

In Welsh mythology, the sword Dyrnwyn belonged to the great king Rhydderch Hael, and when held by a worthy man would glow with fire. In the books, Taran’s sword is indeed referred to as Dyrnwyn. Similarly, alongside the Cauldron of the Dagda, another treasure of the Tuatha de Dannan is the Claiomh Solais or the Sword of Light, housed in the mythical city of Findias. This may also be the mythical origin of Excalibur, though scholars have not made a direct, perfect connection.

Conclusion

With so much of the story pulling from the single source of the Mabinogion, we can boil down the likely setting to around when the stories were written as our general setting. Luckily, we can roughly guestimate to about when the Mabinogion might originate from, and the general look of the movie seems to match with this time setting. So, we’re looking at about 1050-1225, around the time that the stories in the Mabinogion might have started to be told, thus inspiring the events in the film.

Setting: Prydain (Wales/Isle of Britain) Kingdom: Kingdom of Prydain Era: High Middle Ages (1000-1250) Year: 1050-1225 AD Language: Middle Welsh

[struwwelzeter]

Stripped Making Of (not so) Liveblog, actually more of an aimless ramble

Ah the stripped video. One of my absolute favorites.The one I could say so much about and at the same time am so exhausted by even thinking about it ...

But basically this is why I don’t trust Philipp Stölzl. Because I honestly don’t buy that he couldn’t explain to them how controversial Leni Riefenstahl Material would be. I do buy that they were fairly unfamiliar, lots of people were and still are, and especially with their background, I think they genuinely might have not understood. But him? I mean in order to even think of that material he had to have known. And like, that means he is either way too comfortable with her proximity to the NSDAP, or he genuinely kind of just assumed that they knew what they were letting themselves in for. And that’s assuming a pretty arrogant position to be honest. I know he initially wanted to refilm all that but I genuinly don’t think that if he had explained to them more in-depth what this means that they would have still used it. Not with them always being so upset at being seen as right wing. @msgwendolenfairfax recently said something like that he’s jerking off to his own intellectualism, and ever since I do believe it’s mostly that, that he just assumed this “it’s an aesthetic choice, not a political one” position which I am very much on board with in principle, but in practice was letting the band walk into open fire imo. I mean I looked, and he has a clean reputation otherwise, so I do believe it must have been that. Which - giving him the benefit of a doubt - could have just been because he comes from a very intellectual (theatrical) background, that’s what he does nowadays, so it could have been genuine mistake, —- kind of expecting more from the audience than it could deliver, but really? A mistake that big? Why, Philip? It’s entirely possible that I read wayyyyy way too much into it, but like, I have seen people fired for a lot less in this country and I am just so suspicious.

All that being said, that video IS brilliant aesthetically, and anyone who wants to dispute Riefenstahls accomplishments because of it’s evil purposes completely misses the point to be honest. Some of these shots are filmed in a way that would be rare and astonishing even today. My grandmother was only a couple of years younger than her and one of the two first female students at the Munich School for Photography, and she was accused weekly of being too stupid for a camera. That’s the time we are talking about. She might have been a dirty opportunitist, but how much can you really blame her. Can you imagine saying no to these opportunities as a woman, with a camera, during that time? Honestly? People give Albert Speer more slack than her and it’s. Suspicious, let’s leave it at that.

Back to the actual making of, I should update on how my Depeche Mode exploration is going perhaps. I love those “works for everyone” acts, I mean how many of these are there even? What is comparable from later on? Gorillaz? Wu Tang Clan? Billie Eilish?

Richard being a smiling fan boy makes me squeal internally. I am making horcruxing a verb, because him hiding liking pop music is basically me hiding my Eminem records and my classical CDs from my punk friends and I start to be convinced he just flung a bit of his soul around he accidentally splintered off during the chaos of reunification and I had to catch it like the idiot I am.

God, them trying so hard to do it justice makes my heart so full. Schneider is so genuine, and look at Richard smiling, he’s so into that challenge I ... moving on, ok.

I think the stripped ... down to the bone might have been so hard for Till because it covers quite a big range from beginning to end of the line, and he doesn’t normally do that. Like it would be a fluid change from where his voice needs to sit in the beginning to where it sits in the end of it? Because in principle he should be able to hit it I think ...

Yeah see, they didn’t think about the consequences. But they should have and I genuinly do not understand why noone stepped in and made them.

I love how unwilling to compromise Paul is here. I mean I 100% agree with him, and to be honest I don’t think they should have decided against using it, it’s just that they seemed to have been so unaware of what they are using that makes me pause.

See I actully like how Stölzl explains this here. If you take those images on their own and recontextualize it, there is nothing wrong about it whatsover. And doing just that is an art historical constant. It’s just difficult because most people aren’t art historians and can’t sort their instincts away from objectivity. It’s a weird mix of simultaneously knowing too much and too little that makes cases like this so difficult.

See that’s the thing, yes there were (and are) alot of debates about the “who are we and how are we gonna deal with this legacy” thing, but just blindly starting that experiment slightly puts the answer before the question, or? And again, if this would have been a conscious decision of everyone involved I am all for it and I agree, but it just seriously seemed like that wasn’t the case? Or alternatively if he just stumbled over rolls of film and used it, that would’ve been fine too.

The aesthetic commonalities of Nazi Germany and the Warsaw Pact countries could send me into a whole other tangent but I’m gonna shut up about it other than “YES”, because I’m not actually knowledgeable enough about it.

God, I feel so sad for them for that fallout. :(

Yeah, Richard’s right. It is a pity that knowing that fallout going in, you wouldn’t make that video. So maybe it is a good thing in a way that it happened that way, because it is an aesthetic masterpiece, that otherwise would not exist. The ideal state would be when we could make a video like that, fully knowing what it means, and still being able to do it because the majority of people would understand how semiotics work, but I mean utopia isn’t real so.

God honestly ... that conflict of aesthetics and their emotional impact vs their history can fill dissertations (and already does), and it’s truly one of those things our society needs to learn to give people the individual freedom to draw those lines in the sand for themselves. It honestly goes both ways, people say “it’s not like the nazis” because it doesn’t wear neat uniforms but dirty shirts and red caps, and they say it causes school shootings even tho school shootings are caused by bullying and the music we listen to has probably helped more bully victim survive and stay sane than anything, and it’s all part of a huge “I think I understand something based on what it looks like and use that as a quick escape from actually making the effort to understand what it is” delusion.

Yeah see, Stölzl referencing the darkness and crossing of limits - he KNEW what he was doing. He completely derails his own argument, first he says those images are only negative if you know what they came from like it’s two completely seperate things and then he goes “yeah the darkness was needed” ... the darkness you only know if you know where it comes from ... ? What’s it gonna be Philip? I mean I can follow both arguments but like, using both simultaneously seems a bit ... hmm.

Aww Schneider and Paul being proud boys, look at them. It’s funny how Paul “I want to fling shit in everybody’s face” Landers actually gets quite flustered when people he likes love his stuff, no? He reacts the most impressed with the Lost Highway thing aswell, it’s really quite endearing.

I think I rambled on without conclusion even worse than usual but in fairness it’s a very complex issue. TL;DR: I wish they would have made that video knowing what they let themselves in for, because I do think it would have made the fallout easier to bear and I wish that hadn’t happened to them. Does that make sense? At some point very far into the future I will want to write an actual essay about this but we can jot this down as initial brainstorm before you jump on me with arguments I missed, ok! (Seriously tho, please discuss this with me I need arguments that aren’t my own to sharpen my opinion)

https://youtu.be/mImuguOghRM

[thescienceofapologetics]

Evidence for the Resurrection

It’s Easter time once again! A Sunday that marks the single most pivotal point of Christianity. If you want to prove Christianity is a hoax, all you must do is illustrate how the resurrection was a facade. It is absolutely essential to our salvation that Christ conquered death, for if Jesus Christ did not rise from the dead our hope is lost. 1 Corinthians 15:14 likewise states, “And if Christ has not been raised, then our preaching is in vain and your faith is in vain.” Without the resurrection our belief is baseless, futile, unfounded, and foolish. So why is it we believe such an outlandish claim could actually happen, superseding the natural laws of earth? Here’s a few reasons...

The Bible is the most historically accurate ancient text in the world — When discussing the validity of history, it’s only reasonable to reference your source that has proven most reliable. The Bible is that source. No other record of ancient history has come CLOSE to matching the reliability of the Bible. If we say the Bible is untrustworthy, we must discard every other historical record as well because the Bible vastly surpasses every test of authenticity as no other book does. More on that here and here.

Yes, Jesus really died - Many people start off with the dispute that maybe Jesus wasn’t really dead. However, that neglects both the historical and circumstancial context. The Romans were masters at execution. They knew how to draw out suffering to the finest line between death and life, make it last for days on end. This was their art form. These men were proficient and practiced. Jesus was tortured, whipped with a scourge that often exposed bone and vital organs, tearing flesh from a body. Many people didn’t survive that alone. He was forced to carry a cross that could have weight up to 300lbs, and he crumpled under the weight, unable to bear it. Nails were driven through his wrist and through both his feet. Make note he would be unable to walk from the pain in his feet, his hands would be rendered useless. The way you hang on a cross causes death by asphyxiation, to breathe you had to push your self up with means grating your torn back against the wood and putting more pressure on the holes ripping your limbs. After Jesus died they speared his side to make certain he was dead and fluid came pouring out. The Romans checked thoroughly to make sure he was dead because they were shocked he died so quickly. He was bloated, swollen, and gored by death on a cross. Even if for arguments sake, Jesus was not yet dead, being in a tomb for three days would indisputably see to that. If blood loss didn’t kill him, infection certainly would. Additionally, Luke, one of eyewitnesses who recorded the events, was a doctor so his perspective is a notably authoritative one. (Luke 23-24).

The tomb was empty - There is no possible way Jesus, weakened to the point where the Roman masters of execution called his death, unable to use his hands or feet due to the spikes pounded into them, was able to roll away a MASSIVE boulder and over power two trained and able-bodied Roman soldiers. The idea that Jesus didn’t fully die on the cross and escaped the tomb is absurd. Furthermore, the guards stationed to prevent anyone from robbing the tomb and the Roman seal on the two-ton rock ensured that anyone who dared to even attempt to move it faced the death penalty themselves. If the guards themselves fell asleep they faced the same fate. There was a LOT at stake if Jesus’ body was taken, the Romans were taking no chances. Every other argument for the absence of Jesus’ body can quickly be dismantled by historical context and the circumstances by which these things took place.

It was prophesied - Isaiah talks about the particular circumstances of Jesus death, such as no bones would be broken, an unusual anomaly when it came to crucifixion. Jesus himself also foretells that he will rise within three days. Even smaller details like casting lots for His garments were spoken of hundreds of years before Jesus was born. Other prophesies like this show that Jesus’ death was no accident, God knew what He was doing. (Isaiah 52:13-53:12; John 18-20)

Eyewitness accounts - Jesus appeared to over 500 people after His resurrection, many of whom were alive at the time of the gospels being written and therefore could confirm or dispute their accuracy (1 Corinthians 15:6) Among those include the disciples, Mary Magdalene, and Paul the former murderer of Christians. The Bible records accounts of skeptism and unbelief, but they saw the scars on his hands, touched his solid flesh before them, heard his familiar voice, and they believed because of it. Paul became that which he initially DESPISED because of his encounter with Jesus Christ, that alone is a mind-blowing testimony. The man who hunted and killed Christians became a Christian who was willing to be tortured and killed because he so strongly believed in the saving death and resurrection of Jesus Christ.

The apostles went from hiding in extreme fear to preaching the gospel in the face of deadly persecution - When Jesus died the apostles went into hiding. They were TERRIFIED that the Romans, the other Jews, would come after them next. Yet, after Jesus appears, they’re fearlessly preaching the gospel out in open crowds of THOUSANDS. It’s a dramatic switch of perspective. To go from quivering fear to such emboldened confidence, surely seeing Jesus standing risen before you would give you that kind of intrepidation. There is little else to explain how these men were suddenly ready to risk everything after being afraid to admit they ever knew Jesus just days before.

Apostles willing to die for Jesus - Now some people say the apostles stole the body of Jesus to convince people to turn to Christianity. The Bible says that lie was started by the Romans in order to discredit the apostles. However, almost all of the apolstles died for preaching the gospel, and all of them were severely persecuted. Why would they exchange their lives, their health, their reputation, their livelihoods, their comfort for something they knew was a lie? It simply makes no sense. The only logical conclusion is that they believed Jesus was the resurrected Christ.

Appearing to a woman first was a dumb move - The testimony of a woman would not be as respected as than of a man in those times. If Jesus’ resurrection was a ruse, the logical thing to do would be to claim he was seen by a male dignitary of noble standing, not a woman who had been previously possessed by demons - a social blemish (Luke 8:2). “Unflattering” facts like this, the cowardis of the apolstles, their initial skeptism, not recognizing Jesus right away, etc. lend to the credit of the account because it demonstrates an accurate retelling, not a fabrication that was crafted to deceptively sway the masses into false belief.

Vision, hallucination unlikely due to number of witnesses and circumstances - Jesus didn’t appear to two people and then go back to Heaven. He appeared to over 500 in all sorts of different locations. People who weren’t looking for him, people who didn’t believe it was Him until they had proof. Proof so certain that they were no longer afraid, they were filled with unextinguishable hope. We must also realize the historical context of the time in which it took place. It’s much easier to fabricate this kind of illusion today with the technology and way by which we pass on information. The time period in which the resurrection took place adds merit that should not be ignored. News was circulated in a manner that was unique to our present day process.

Non-Christian historians record the resurrection - Josephus, a renowned secular historian at the time of Jesus’ death, writes, “On the third day He appeared... restored to life.” It should be noted there are many who debate the reliability of Josephus’ words regarding the resurrection, however, many historians find this evidence to support the Bible’s claims.

The persecution of the early church - Under Nero’s reign the early church suffered some of the most violent persecution, not to mention the Jewish leaders who also sought to kill the Christians. The steadfast resolve of a Church who was in its infant stage is astounding. The only explanation is that they all genuinely believed in the resurrection. They had nothing to gain and everything to lose by preaching the gospel, yet they did so freely despite the cost. If Christianity was based on a lie, it should have been easy to crush it as it was beginning. The fact that the force of the entire Roman Empire wasn’t enough to sway their devotion is incredible. The whole of the known world tried to annihilate Christianity in the cradle but couldn’t.

It is the accumulation of evidence that begs cause for belief - It is not for one singular reason that we believe Jesus rose from the dead, but rather the combined evidence that demands an explanation that only the Bible provides. The proven accuracy of the Bible, the eyewitnesses details; the historical records of Jesus walking, eating, alive; the unexplainable absence in the tomb despite all efforts to seal it; the prophesies fulfilled; the change in people’s lives, the martyrs, the flourishing of the church in the face of persecution. It all points back to Jesus rising from the dead as the only reasonable explanation. The Bible consistently presents answers to questions the world has no answer for.

More comprehensive analysis and sources

Within these sources you’ll find more Biblical references, breaking down arguments and evidence, and quotes from some of the world’s finest minds and historians.

The Resurrection of Christ: The Best Proved Fact in History

Resurrection: No Doubt About It

Biblical and Extra-Biblical Evidences

Is the Resurrection True?

Atheist’s Look at the Resurrection

Still got questions/comments? Shoot me an ask! I don’t usually reply to comments on long posts, but I’d certainly love to talk!

[faroreswinds]

3H DLC Book 5: Mysteries of the Calendar, Vol. 2

With the new update, there is some new stuff to dig in here that I very much want to look over. You can find the books here: https://imgur.com/a/IbluWTg

Since there are a lot of them, I’m just going to split them up into different posts and take my time shifting through them.

Summary- Contents

This particular book is about the past, most notably the old calendar way, which is basically just our calendar in real life. I guess this makes sense, as Foldan was once a technologically advanced world very similar to our own, with skyscrapers and dangerous weapons of war. I would hazard a guess that old, advanced Foldan was basically our world, just with magical origins. 

Regardless, the book is about the shift of the old calendar way to the new one the game presents. The old way was “months” and the new way is “moons”, although they basically serve the exact same function and only the naming function has changed. The prior way of naming (January, February, etc.) are lost, but they are aware that they were shortened to numbers such as 1 and 2. 

It goes on to state that this old method existed for an immeasurable amount of time, that they do not know when it started other than it can be traced back to the era of the gods, and that it simply brings up more questions. 

The old way was changed by Emperor Wilhelm when he founded the Adrestian Empire, abandoning the old calendar for the Imperial one. It would have caused a lot of unrest and confusion at the time, so the book proposes that may have been two reasons for the change. 

The Influence of the Church of Seiros

As the change to “moons” was meant to reflect the teachings of Seiros, as the moons are associated with the saints and tenets, it is likely that Wilhelm wanted to help legitimize the Church and help spread the beliefs.

If true, this mean that that since its inception, the Empire has had close ties with the Church of Seiros. 

It is also postulated that the goddess herself wished for the change to occur as voiced through Saint Seiros, and Wilhelm was simply implementing this change.  

Asserting Authority

Since the flow of time is important, creating a new method to track it is akin to claiming dominion over time itself. As such, the Empire took its newfound influence after its founding, and retroactively proclaimed its founding as Year 1. Amid the founding of Foldan, this move would have bolstered the Empire’s authority and heralded the start of a new era. 

Legitimacy of Document

As per Linhardt’s declaration that some of the documents may be fake or forgeries, it’s a good idea to question the legitimacy of all. It’s better to question what is real, and what isn’t, even if in the end it’s only guesses.

This document is pretty interesting, and if real somewhat telling. I can’t say we gleam a whole lot of new info we couldn’t have simply guessed from general critical thinking, but it’s nonetheless worth looking into. 

Firstly, what this tells us is that the “old way” is basically what the real world uses. As I mentioned before, this matches with ancient Foldan being a somewhat reflection of our real world now (just with the added touch of magic and real gods and dragons). “Months” were changed to “moons”, but the system basically works the same. The Empire simply added a theological meaning to each month, and a new name, as well as restarting the years to 1. Sort of like how we have BE and AD, in a way (just without Jesus). Perhaps it would be closer to compare it to the traditional Japanese calendar years, where they track the years based on the current Emperor and what how many years he has been in power. For example, in 2019, it was the Heisei Era year 63. When the emperor stepped down, the new emperor proclaimed the new period as Reiwa Year 1. 

What is particularly interesting is that, according to this document, it would seem historians tried to retrace the origins of this old calendar way. They were able to trace it back to the “era of the gods” and it simply created more questions. What these questions are, we don’t know. What this era means, we also don’t know. However, as per my look at the Slither document, it may be possible that the era of the gods refers to the time when Foldan was once modern. Unfortunately, this is purely speculation. All we know is, is that it was in use for a very long time, all the way up to when Wilhelm founded the Empire over 1000 years ago. 

This brings another thing to mind. If the calendar did indeed last since the time when the Slithers were still on the surface, than means the calendar system lasted through the destruction of the world and through the war between Sothis and the Slithers. This offers two explanations as to why this system survived:

Sothis and the Nabateans re-implemented the system so that the humans on the newly formed Foldan could keep track of time. 

Some humans survived on the surface through the war, and carried on the legacy of the old ways the best they could.

Both cases are possible, although we know that that the Nabateans did not reintroduce technology to the humans after Foldan was restored (and therefore may not have re-introduced the time system). The second scenario is quite likely, however, as Rhea herself implies that some may humans survived the Sothis war (unless she just means that the only survivors where the ones that went underground).

It is also possible that the “era of the gods” refers to when Sothis “restarted Foldan”, and the old system is actually not older than her war with the Slithers.

Regardless, the next part is very interesting: the reasons why Wilhelm implemented the new system. According to the game, the Empire was founded on the 1st of the Great Tree Moon (which is the equivalent of April). This is particularly interesting because in Japan, April 1st has an importance, as it marks the beginning of the government's fiscal year. It is also the date when Reiwa Year 1 began (calling back to the Japanese system of time keeping I mentioned before). 

In the lore of the game, the Great Tree Moon is the beginning of the new year and spring; people pray to realize their potential. 

Anyways, since the book is of a more recent print, the writers and historians involved have no clue as to why Wilhelm implemented a new time keeping system when it would have caused confusion and unrest during a time that was already difficult. However, they propose two possible theories:

Wilhelm did as the goddess desired, or did it to bolster the credibility of the Church and spread the beliefs

Wilhelm wanted to bolster the Empire’s new rule and secure authority. 

Both of these are valid theories, although they suggest different things. For former implies that Rhea used Wilhelm to validate her Church and basically enforce some soft power and influence over Foldan. Another possible conclusion we can draw is that Wilhelm wanted to help legitimize Rhea’s religion because they were allies working together to change the social-political climate of the continent, or maybe even help her establish a means to protect the dark truth from humans, as well as any surviving Nabateans. 

The latter theory suggests that it was actually Wilhelm who used the Church’s influence to bolster his own power, to solidify his new era and dominance over the people of Foldan. 

It is important to remember that the author of these books is unsure, and that these are simply theories. However, I would summarize that the truth is a little bit of both. Wilhelm and Rhea were allies, although how much Wilhelm knew of Rhea’s history is unclear. He probably wanted to solidify his power, and Rhea wanted to establish her Church. By changing the calendar system, they were able to accomplish both goals. 

Either way, it would be unfair to say that one theory is more true than the other when we lack any evidence to back such a claim up.

Now, how legitimate is this book? Well, it’s certainly not suspicious. It’s not terribly incriminating for any particular side, and reads pretty objectively. It lacks Seteth’s signature, so it is unlikely that it was removed from the library, but that doesn’t mean it’s not real. It would also go hand in hand with how past Foldan seems similar to the real world. 

Ultimately, the most important thing we can gleam from this document is that Wilhelm and possibly Rhea changed the calendar, but beyond that doesn’t really contextualize history that deeply. I would say this document has a high chance of being pretty legit overall.

If there anything else anyone would like to add, please feel free to share!

[notesinthearchives-blog]

[This entry was redacted from the Book of the War and history at large for reasons of Homeworld security. The copy below has been kept for analysis. See addendum for further notes from our own investigations of the topic]

Homeland Relay [Lesser Species (?): Group/Technology]: The story of the homeland relay should have been a relatively dull and simple thing from the so called "galactic empire" era of human history. At its most basic, each individual homeland relay was a small, mostly automated space station with a crew of 3-5 people.

Messages and news from Earth would be encoded as light, before being shot through a primitive sub-spatial dimension that would allow the message to move at even greater speed whilst avoiding the worst of the dust and radiation and other things that could distort the light. The message would be intercepted by another homeland relay, which would check the data for distortions, before re-encoding it into light again and shooting it on to the next homeland relay, on and on until its inevitable destination.

The homeland relays should have been just another symptom of the centrality of Earth in human thought at the time: as all roads once led to Rome, so all the homeland relays led out from and back to Earth, with even various rival empires and break away factions being fundamentally linked back to their homeland. By all rights, the homeland relays should have become redundant after Earth was destroyed.

As we now know, they didn't. Something kept sending messages to the relays.

Here information becomes scarse, until recently our main sources of information on the homeland relays and their inhabitants were the devastation they would leave behind: fake distress beacons luring in help that would never leave the space station; colony ships passing too close would find their hibernating passengers drained dry of blood and their corridors infested with strange carnivorous bats; nearby planets finding themselves visited by strange ships in the dead of the night, powerless to stop their townsfolk being herded into the ships and never seen again.

Strangely, the inhabitants of the homeland relays weren't the only thing that was changed after contact with this new signal: the local structure of space-time itself appears to have been affected. Visitors to the space around the homeland relays reported that light appeared to shine dimmer; whilst entropy seemed to take on increasingly aesthetic qualities; even death itself was a more negotiable concept for the lesser species.

We have more information from when the inhabitants took a more evangelistic approach: making the shift from space travelling apex predators to being the leaders of militarised religious sects. But even here direct information from them was cryptic, vague and usually overladen with mysticism; and close examination generally suggested that their rhetoric and explanations of their nature were usually crafted to facilitate an infiltration and high jacking of the local institutions and power structures.

A few general themes can be discerned from their sermons: claims that the Earth that was destroyed being a fake Earth, a course not meant to be taken, but there is hope as the armies of the real Earth were coming: a prince or a knight or a messiah carrying the blood of a dragon leading the charge. Drawing from this, the general consensus among later post humans is that the whole affair was a particularly bloody overreaction to Earth being destroyed- a sort of apocalyptic theology or inverted apocalyptic theology for a post apocalypse culture. Select War historians are less sure [data corrupted, unretrievable]

We can learn more from their impact: after converting the leaders at a local and planetary level they'd set up strangely hedonistically inclined theocratic states. These appear to have meant to be temporary: less meant to be a pillar of society and more as a way of preparing society for holy (or perhaps unholy) war. Both internal warfare against dissidents and cannibalistic crusades against nearby cultures were the norm, yet neither of these were the ultimate target: instead being a way of priming the population for what was to come.

Though it is not difficult to guess who this future war was meant to target, we do not have to worry: the homeland relay, the so called "homeland cults" that grew from them and their theocracies were largely exterminated by the House Military's second wave before they were ready for such a war. Doubtless a few relics remain, the Anticonvent culture, for example, was largely ignored by the House Military due to a combination of their isolation and comparative absence of bloodlust and war mongering instinct, but the days when these could have had an impact on the War at large are gone.

Addendum 1 [addendum uses common codewords- "Hand", shortened to "Ha", for the leader of field operations in this theatre of War; "Mind" being the collective statements of his superiors and shortened to Mi"]

Ha-- Circumstantial evidence suggest that earlier conclusions may have been optimistic- we know damage to space-time in affected areas was diluted and contained but never mended. Permission to reexamine second wave's data in conjunction with modern surveillance Y/N?

Mi---- Y- permission granted. [see addendum 2]

Addendum 2.1 [Timeline corruption- destroyed by interference earlier in timeline. We have preserved addendum from this timeline- see 3.1 for start of current timeline]

Ha-- It appears that there were more survivors from the homeland relays than previously thought. The cult known as The Lesser Brides has been confirmed as having survived- they appear to have altered the sub-spatial dimension the homeland relay used to send messages, essentially dragging at the very least the space station itself and a population of unknown size into it. An extended stake out found that they were leaving the dimension to collect resources and recruits.

Ha---- Further information will require the infiltration of the sub-spatial dimension itself. Permission to launch infiltration Y/N?

Mi-------- Y- permission granted [see addendum 2.2]

Ha---- The discovery of The Lesser Brides leaves open the possibility that other homeland relay groups may have survived. In particular, their use of sub-spatial dimensions may have been replicated by others, and may suggest that they have the support of some time active power. Permission to launch wider scale investigation with House Military heavy support Y/N?

Mi-------- Y- permission granted [see addendum 2.3]

Addendum 2.2 Ha-- Infiltration successful- our agent is in the Lesser Brides' sub-spatial dimension and is sending reports to us. Posing as a local posthuman, he was initiated into a cult we had confirmed the Lesser Brides had been using as a recruitment tool.

Ha---- Initial description from agent follows, full log sent via [data corrupted- unretrievable]

   "Imagine walking inside a tube large enough to fit a cathedral in: that you can see so high and goes on for so long that no matter where you look you get vertigo. Imagine now that gravity is subjective: that where ever you place your feet is down for all intrinsic purposes and, if you know how, you can fall upwards or sideways. Now imagine if this tube was filled to the brim with architecture built to take advantage of this. Domed temples floating in mid air- their insides painted in a colour you'd swear was midnight black were it not for the fact that it glittered. Impossibly tall towers- the bells at their top causing vibrations that cause chimes throughout the rest of the tower to sing for hours in perfect harmony. Canals great and small, whose ink black water flows smoothly even at right angles or double backing on itself- which after defying gravity in a thousand different ways proceeds to link back to its source in a sprawling möbius loop."  

   "There are people who have lived there entire lives here. The canals are dotted with boat houses and little Venices; every tower and temple is maintained and guarded by its own unholy order that grows most of their new members in vats; whilst the many parentless hybrid children are nursed and raised in crèches by what I believe to be the people closest to original Lesser Brides aesthetically speaking. The children are fed the Bride's milk as babies, are gently corrected as they consider rebellion, and diligently cared back to health as they fall sick. For abominations against history and nature, the Brides make for excellent parents."  

Ha------ this log has come to my attention, and makes me concerned that our agent may be at risk of being compromised. Permission to extract him Y/N? Extract from log below:

   "We visited a planet under the Brides' influence. No, that's an oversimplification. The planet we visited had a forty hour day, with the average night in the areas with some population (excluding the poles for instance) generally varying from 15 to 26 hours depending on the season and distance from the equator. The governing bodies of the planet lay claim to different hours of the day. The governing bodies that control the hours where there is sunlight year round are fairly conservative Arcadian or proto-Arcadian post human cultures. The hours near midnight are governed by the law of the Lesser Brides. When one government goes to sleep, another one wakes up."  

   "In between these hours the patterns of law and authority wane and wax from one to the other, changing based on what they can plausibly enforce and what one will let the other get away with. In these not quite either hours, a network of hybrid subcultures flourish: party goers and cultists; musicians and gangs; the night shift staff and the strange customers that they service..."  

   "... It was a dispute over one of these not quite either hours that drew us from the subspace dimension. Matron Tremaine was arriving as a diplomat, I was part of her retinue. I didn't see what negotiations went on, but her opposite number left looking fairly pleased with himself, apparently having wrangled substantial concessions out of her. Matron Tremaine was also satisfied with the concessions, giving me the impression that her opposite number didn't quite grasp the power of who they were negotiating with..."  

   "As Matron Tremaine later said to us, 'It pays to maintain good relations with our neighbours. Afterall, we are always recruiting.' I could have sworn the Matron gave a pointed look in my direction, and for a moment I was worried that my cover was blown. I relaxed when I realised that surely they'd have done something already if they knew..."  

Ha-------- Belay that request. After a worrying but understandable period of silence from our agent, we have received her latest and almost certainly last entry and are now certain that she was compromised before regenerating into a form that was antithetical to Homeworld's interests. The entry was generated by our agent's emergency protocols that act to inform us in the event of our agent's corruption by hostile powers. Extract below:

   "I was on my knees for the ceremony. My Husband was absent in the flesh but nevertheless there in spirit as He was for us all. Two of my fellow brides lifted up the veil of my wedding dress as Matron Tremaine brought the goblet- holding it up to my mouth. The Blood of the Dragon slid smoothly down my throat, painting my lips a deep, dark red as it passed down."  

   "As the matron took the goblet away, the younger brides took my wrists and sunk their fangs into it. My internal weaponry wanted to activate, as if by reflex, but I restrained it as the brides drank deeply. My throat, of course, was Matron Tremaine's to take. Moving to her knees to access it, spilling rose petal stains down my dress and hers, I was rendered utterly powerless in her grasp..."  

   "I was faint when the deed was finally done, my white dress having turned a liquid red. My ceremony was not yet over: it finished with my chest impaled upon Matron Tremaine's spear. My protocols of regeneration kicked in, now guided by the Blood of the Dragon in my belly. I awoke from the fires of my rebirth with a form made to my Husbands desires, and with hungers the likes of which I had never experienced... Hungers my fellow brides were only to happy to teach me how best to sate..."  

   "Now? My past life seems like a dream, like something that happened to someone else. Did I really live in a world of dull colours and duller senses before the Blood of the Dragon made me see colours so vibrant?"  

   "Did I really half live a half life in service to my House before my Husband taught me to live- really live, really feel alive- in a body of beautiful dead flesh?"  

   "Was I really that pathetic?"  

   "And then there's you, my former masters. Its just like you to install a back door in my biodata, too late for me to stop now of course even with the Blood of the Dragon now cutting my links to the Homeworld. So I suppose I'm stuck with an audience for now. Very well. I can live with that."  

   "Afterall, I don't think anyone has told you just how pathetic you are."  

   "I was pathetic once, but I had the possibility to become something better. You can't even achieve that."  

   "And I now know, that you are nothing."  

   "You are nothing compared to the Prince who carries the Blood of the Dragon, yet alone the Mother of Monsters who empowered Him."  

   "He is coming for you."  

   "You will know fear."  

   "You will know death."  

   "You will know the [data corrupted- unretrievable]  

Addendum 2.3 [data corrupted- unretrievable]

Addendum 3.1

Ha-- Initial fears have been proven beyond doubt. We now have yet another front in the War. Status update attached below:

Probably using information obtained from our compromised agent, homeland cult known as Night's Children launched a surprise attack earlier in history- apparently having partially detached their sub-spatial dimension from history itself- to make war on the local House sympathising societies. The homeland cults Knights of the Dead Suns, Haemomancer Covens, and Night's Black Agents swiftly replicated this tactic.

Just as our forces mobilised to exterminate these forces, the homeland cults took action later in history: across the spatial territories of homeland cults long since exterminated that had been recolonised by various (mostly human or human derived) species, great machines activated and started butchering the colonists on an industrial scale. After the population was sacrificed in these Moloch Engines, the blood spilt seemingly resurrected the dead homeland cults and their theocracies, which started making war on House sympathising societies later in history.

As it stands, our forces have driven back the homeland cults positioned earlier in history and contained the theocracies later in history, current tactics are relying on waging a war of attrition with the understanding that we can afford the losses and they can't. Previous attempts to recapture their territory or wage a more retroactive war against the cults and activated Moloch Engines were bogged down fighting time active partisan cells. We are currently mobilising a task force for locating a destroying any other Moloch Engines before they activate.

The Lesser Brides and a number of other homeland cults have retreated into their sub-spatial dimension completely, our forces currently have them under siege. In light of our agent being compromised, we suspect that the Lesser Brides may soon have access to some Homeworld cultural-genetic weaponry, but nothing the Faction hasn't already traded in and nothing that should be a problem as long as the Lesser Brides remain contained.

The Anticonvent remain unhostile, but we continue monitoring them both for changes in behaviour and information on the source of their transmissions [data corrupted- unretrievable].

Ha---- we are containing the homeland cults, and projections show that in the long run we are winning or at least can maintain this stance indefinitely. However, Homeworld has essentially infinite resources, of which we are using a comparatively pitiful amount to fight these enemies. Even when we reach a point where we can launch retroactive warfare without interference, the homeland cults hiding within their sub-spatial dimensions will remain a security risk, and judging by past and current experience there is a good chance that those forces that we defeat will just stubbornly refuse to stay dead.

Ha----Request: can I have use of heavier firepower to deal with them Y/N? Currently, most of the forces I am using are either allied cultures in the region or conscripted auxilia forces. Whilst functional at containing the threat, they are utterly inadequate for eliminating it. I would like to emphasise that the homeland relay cults are affecting the local structure of space time: we have no idea what kind of damage they are doing but what is certain is that the longer we dither the more difficult it will be to repair.

Mi-------- N- request not granted. Homeworld's resources may be infinite but our attention isn't. Our situation is one of distractions: if we take the time and effort to deal with enemies like the ones you are fighting the real enemies will start advancing on a thousand more important, more delicate fronts. The homeland cults, if they are still around when we win the War, will be relatively easy to mop up afterwards. This is a minor front after all, even if we look at who is sending the signals [data corrupted- unretrievable].

-

Link to archive of our own version: https://archiveofourown.org/works/17042054/chapters/42320339

[armeniaitn]

In The Bends And Labyrinths Of Civilizations

New Post has been published on https://armenia.in-the.news/politics/in-the-bends-and-labyrinths-of-civilizations-46266-09-08-2020/

In The Bends And Labyrinths Of Civilizations

What describes a nation, or more importantly who describes a nation? Nations like to tell about heroic, victorious events of their history, it is pleasant; they are proud of their famous compatriots. Moreover, they are flattered to be highly estimated by foreign prominent people for two and a half thousand years and sometimes that words have been even overestimated. But the first-hand sources confirm, consequently, they are real. Accordingly, it is needed to understand why they expressed glorious opinions about Armenians as the authors include famous thinkers of different nations and world greats.

There are many scientific hypotheses known in the history of science, which have been rationally explained for many, even hundreds of years. Great thinkers often come to intuitive conclusions that are incomprehensible to most of their contemporaries, they are even being criticized for their ideas. For decades, I kept viewing an approach by Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656–1708), a great French thinker and member of Paris Academy who noted; “Armenian nation is the best nation in the world; they are moral, polite, full of chastity and decency.”

At first sight, one may take this kind of statement as unreasonable and exaggerated. Armenians are patriotic, proud, but they are very critical to themselves; even a nationalist Armenian will not express such ideas. At the same time, another French thinker, historian, famous geographer Jacques Élisée Reclus (1830–1905) claims: The Armenian villager can be attributed to what Turnefor said; “Armenians are the best people in the world without much exaggeration”, which, in its turn, means that there are still serious grounds for such opinions.

More than a hundred years after Tournefort, the great English poet Lord George Gordon Byron wrote. “The virtues of Armenians are their own, and the shortcomings are taken from others”. In short, Armenians are decent and perfect and the like.

At first glance, it seems that such opinions require a lot of different knowledge on many nations, which will let us come to a certain conclusion through comparison. In other words, it was necessary to study a certain set of knowledge, which was still quite narrow at the times of the mentioned authors. Accordingly, the conclusions had to have a different starting point.

From our point of view, that starting point could have been based on several notorious historical facts, in particular:

1) Testimonies of ancient Greek and Roman historians about the Armenian people and Armenia,

2) Although several dozen peoples lived in the Armenian Highlands and Mesopotamia in ancient times, but few survived, including the Armenian people,

3) Starting from the ancient Roman and Persian periods and throughout the Middle Ages, Armenia was the scene of savage invasions (Arabs, Mongols, Seljuks, Ottomans, etc.), but Armenians continued to keep their existence in the Armenian Highlands,

4)  the last mentioned outstanding peace-loving characteristic of the Armenian people, which was manifested both during the powerful Armenian kingdoms and after the loss of statehood

5) Existence of Armenian colonies in many countries, including European ones, where Armenians, have both preserved their national identity, and, at the same time, having been integrated  in the new national environment, have contributed to the prosperity of those countries,

6) The process of preserving and continuously developing the Armenian language, the theological, philosophical, scientific, literary heritage created in Armenian, and the publishing heritage, too,

7) Existence of unique Armenian culture, civilization, and also contribution of Armenians to world civilization.

These basic ideas, of course, are not exhaustive; there are and there will possible be other ideas, too. It is necessary to understand the main thing: who is the Armenian, what are his peculiarities and what it was that ensured his existence for millennia?

I will emphasize the following description of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), a great German thinker about Armenians: “Hardworking and intelligent people”, “they have a special origin”, “all the nations accept Armenians with open arms”, they have “excellent mettle”, “it is impossible for us to talk about their preliminary formation”.

Till today, modern historiography, linguistics, and ethnography are not “able” to fully present the “preliminary formation” of the Armenian nation, but there are certain assumptions. But first, let us consider the “special origins” of the Armenian people.  One thing is certain; the origin, development and formation of the Armenian people are hidden in the thick fog of thousands of years. At all events, according to the modern genetic research, scientists confirm that Armenians have lived in their highlands for more than 7-8 thousand years. The Armenian language and culture also testify to the mentioned facts. It is clear that the perfection of the language, the elaboration, the rich vocabulary, the ability to express thoughts, ideas, knowledge, human emotions could not be created even for centuries, it has, surely, taken millennia. Differently, the development of the language also has required a rich culture, the development of which also took millennia. Language and culture, complementing and enriching each other, as well as creatively assimilating and synthesizing the best values ​​and traditions of neighboring languages ​​and cultures, have become, one may say, a dominant language and culture of regional significance. Thanks to that, the Armenian people have survived in the Armenian Highlands for millennia.

When talking about the special origin of the Armenian people, one can’t help drawing attention to the Armenian Highlands. Generally, living in the mountains is viewed to be one of the best ways of protections from outside attacks, but limiting yourself to it does not yet give answers to many questions. The inhabitants of the mountainous regions have to constantly struggle and adapt to the harsh climatic conditions, and in order to achieve the result they need the joint efforts of the people, which, in its turn, forces them to develop special and stricter forms of coexistence as compared with the conditions in the valleys. On the contrary, mountains devote people certain advantages, such as working tools, raw materials for housing (obsidian, copper, tin, iron, various non-metallic building materials, and the like), easier means of self-protection, and all the rest. And finally, the mountains give people spiritual charge, spirituality, and also form a uniqueway of thinkingand a way of life which corresponds to it. The “One for all, all for one” thinking is typical, first of all, to the mountaineers. The evidence of the last mentioned is not only the way of life, behavior and manners of Armenians, but also of all mountain peoples.

There is not any coincidence that the civilizations formed in Mesopotamia, more specifically in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, have constantly been changed, and the Armenian civilization having been formed in the Armenian Highlands has kept maintaining its existence and developing steadily.

The mountaineer, whether he wants it or not, must be honest, decedent, hospitable, hardworking and inquisitive, physically and mentally healthy, conservative, apologist of public and individual order, initiative and courageous, and so on and so forth. Just as he receives guests with open arms, so he will be received with open arms, too. The mountaineer is in need of accepting guests just because he is isolated from the world and needs to be informed about what is going on in the world around him. This is how the “excellent mettle”, mentioned by Kant, has been formed. It is obvious that the bearer of all this is first of all the villager, to whom Reclu rightly attributes Turnefor’s words about Armenians.

The “open-arms” feature is also hardened in the cold. Armenians have also been involved in trade for centuries, which comes to say that they have not cheated in doing business, no matter how much they pursued personal interests, on the contrary, they have been able to attract customers, including members of royal families, great princes and feudal lords, nobles, local big merchants, and also to prove their honesty, kindness, without which they would have never been “welcomed with open arms”. Armenian merchants often also acted as royal translators, diplomats, achieved high positions in some countries, and became foreign ministers.

It is obvious that during the long contacts the Armenian merchants have not been engaged only in trade, but, simultaneously, have introduced Armenian culture, art, crafts to foreigners, participated in various events of the given country and the like. With their involvement, the Armenians have built churches, schools, established printing houses in the colonies, and came up with charitable initiatives. They have even had a special costume-suit worthy of the time and it is not accidental that Rousseau wore the clothes of an Armenian merchant to avoid political persecution. And, of course, the establishment of that country was well aware of all that.

Another characteristic Armenians have, is their peace-loving nature. Turnefor writes that Armenians “consider themselves to be happy when not dealing with weapons, “in contrast with other nations, they take up arms only to defend themselves against any attacks.” Another thing that is worth mentioning is the assurance of the Russian historian Sergei Glinka (1775 / 6-1847). “I am not writing praise, and how far are all stories(about Armenians) from praise? Armenians were not carried away by violent outbursts of conquest by the moral features of their national spirit as all that have been transitory.

Defending the homeland, preserving their own independence, withstanding external violence attempts-these are the main goals for them to get armed. Here is why Mihr, one of their pagan Gods, was a spiritual fire that preserved and would not harm the nature and man”. Let’s apply to J. Byron again. “It is difficult to find a chronology of a nation that is free from vicious crimes than that of the Armenians, whose virtues are the product of peace and whose vices are the result of repression”. An English politician, statesman William Ewart Gladstone (1805-1898) is also needed to be mentioned as a known person having written about Armenians; According to him, “Armenians are one of the oldest peoples of the Christian civilization and one of the most peaceful, entrepreneurial and sensible one in the world”, he also mentions that diligence, striving for peace, common sense are the main reasons why slavery was not formed in Armenia as a society.

We may continue the series of glorifying Armenians may be continued remembering the German orientalist V. Belkin member of the French Academy, Russian military historian Viktor Abaza (1831-1898) and others. Just let me mention that the biggest proof of the Armenians’ love of/ towards peace is their history, full of episodes of their struggle for independence and liberation, also known in the East for its arrogance, pages about great generals, war heroes and, finally, the best evidence is the epic poem “Sasna Tsrer”. An example of peace-loving feature of the Armenian people is the King Artashes I of the mighty empire of Greater Armenia, who marked the borders of the Armenian kingdom not through force of arms, but through the presence of an Armenian-speaking population. Generally, peace-loving is conditioned with diligence and the ability to acquire wealth on one’s own. For thousands years having lived in the strict conditions of the highlands, Armenians have learned to earn their own living, to work hard, to know the laws of nature, and also to realize that by robbing someone else’s property, you impoverish yourself. Having always been constant victim of the surrounding robbers, Armenians have forever realized that robbery is not the right way to live well. Robbery, theft, taking someone else’s property always causes resistance and as a result of robbery one should be ready not only to gain, but also to lose; one loses his children, his peace of mind, and often becomes a victim of robbery. There have existed many powerful empires, which have disappeared with their peoples before the eyes of Armenians. Every war, even a victorious one, gives birth to a new war and, predominantly, the winner becomes the loser. This is how the Sumerians, Akkadians, Assyrians, Roman and Parthian empires disappeared from the face of the earth.

Since the ancient times, plunder has been an important part of the way of life of the peoples having in the European continent, but having adopted the ancient Greek philosophical rationalism, the Europeans did manage to greatly promote education, science, technology, develop the arts, and inherit the cruel, malevolent and arrogant path concentrating on urgent political and economic interests and due to that, they succeeded in ensuring a prosperous life for the “golden billion” of their citizens and subjects.

The thinkers of the European Enlightenment, who advocated the ideas of human rights, freedom, equality, “fraternity” proclaimed by the French Revolution, in fact did not have worthy followers and did not guarantee the embodiment of the idea of ​​”fraternity”. It was all this that led archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann Johann Ludwig Heinrich Julius Schliemann (1822-90) to come to the conclusion according to which “the tragedy of Europe is that its civilization is stood on the Greek rather than the Armenian culture”.

Today, the West is reaping the fruits of its sins; international terrorism and international migration. They are just germs and still Europe has a lot to pay for the atrocities, looting, wars, and damage to hundreds of peoples.

Above we mentioned about the Armenian colonies, which have a history of thousands of years, and not only multilingual literature, references-studies exist but also significant traces of material culture have been preserved. Some Armenian colonies have been created by the migration of Armenians, when for various reasons the Armenians were forced to leave their homeland, others by the forced resettlement or deportation of savage states. The forcible deportation had several goals: first, to evict the Armenian territories in order to appropriate them once and for all, on the other hand, to make those territories unattractive or unsuitable for the enemy neighboring countries. Our immediate neighbors, Byzantium, Persia, Rech Pospolita, Transylvania, Russia, India, have forcibly or peacefully populated villages, towns, and regions with Armenians. By deporting, sometimes taking advantage of, providing land, economic privileges, national educational, cultural, religious freedoms, granting internal autonomy, Armenians settled their uninhabited or occupied territories, using their commercial and craft potential for their own security and development. What was the reason for this kind of friendly attitude towards Armenians? The answer is obvious. Armenians are hardworking, progressive and, also, peace-loving/peaceful.

On this subject, I would love to remind a part from the history of the Crimea. When Russian Empress Catherine II (1762-96) instructed Prince Potemkin to seize the Crimea, he took the following step: invited the Greeks and Christian Armenians, granted tax and property privileges to his country. The caravans of Christian Armenians and Greeks moved to Christian Russia, as a result of which the short-lived worker collapsed economically and lost his resistance on the eve of the Russian invasion.

Byzantium once weakened the Armenian kingdoms, evicted Armenians, paved the way for the Turkish troops to the depths of the country, to Constantinople and perished, so the Turks did not shy/keep away from any means, even resorting to genocide and statelessness, depriving themselves of a viable Christian element.

The West will also greatly contribute to this, as soon as it gets rid of Britain’s “We have no fixed allies, we have no eternal enemies. Only our interests are immutable and eternal”(Henry Temple, Lord Palmerson, 1848) destructive philosophy. It is necessary to have “permanent friends”, which can be achieved only through mutually beneficial cooperation.

Although, at first sight, the words of praise from many famous foreigners about the Armenian people may seem to have been exaggerated, they are really justified. However, this does not still mean that Armenians are the “best” people of the world, at least because there are many “good” nations, who have greatly contributed to the development of human civilization. For centuries, Armenians, having been under the brutal rule of foreigners, have taken many of their flaws and now they have left the national-moral image of their ancestors out having lost many values. Accordingly, I am sending a message to Armenians not only to be proud of the glory and praise of the past, but also to make efforts to restore the special majesty and virtue of the Armenian nation, and to get rid of foreign flaws. Only with that self-purification and exaltation you will be able to consider yourself a virtuous people, which is more important than the praise of others.

Share this:

Related

Read original article here.

[uomo-accattivante]

[mathematicianadda]

Historiography of Galileo’s relation to antiquity and middle ages

Our picture of Greek antiquity is distorted. Only a fraction of the masterpieces of antiquity have survived. Decisions on what to preserve were made by in ages of vastly inferior intellectual levels. Aristotelian philosophy is more accessible for mediocre minds than advanced mathematics and science. Hence this simpler part of Greek intellectual achievement was eagerly pursued, while technical works were neglected and perished. The alleged predominance of an Aristotelian worldview in antiquity is an illusion created by this distortion of sources. The “continuity thesis” that paints 17th-century science as building on medieval thought is doubly mistaken, as it misconstrues both ancient science and Galileo’s role in the scientific revolution.

Transcript

To praise Galileo is to criticise the Greeks. The contrast class of “Aristotelian” science is constantly invoked to explain Galileo’s alleged greatness, both in Galileo’s own works and in modern scholarship. But this narrative gets it all wrong, in my opinion. It is based on a caricature of Greek science that effectively ignores the Greek mathematical tradition.

Francis Bacon put it well: when “human learning suffered shipwreck” with the death of the classical world, “the systems of Aristotle and Plato, like planks of lighter and less solid material, floated on the waves of time and were preserved,” while treasure troves of much more mathematically advanced works were lost forever.

Aristotelian science is not the pinnacle of Greek scientific thought. Far from it. It is not the best part of Greek science, but the part of Greek science that was most accessible and appealing to the generations of mathematically ignorant people who populated the universities in medieval Europe for hundreds of years. And perhaps some generations who still do.

Mathematicians have always felt differently. “So many great findings of the Ancients lie with the roaches and worms,” said Fermat. They are lost, in other words, these mathematical masterpieces that once existed. That’s how Fermat put it, and all his mathematical colleagues agreed. And they were right.

In the 20th century a few such masterpieces were recovered. So these 17th-century mathematicians were proven right in their intuition that great works were forgotten and hidden away among “roaches and worms” indeed.

In 1906, a work of Archimedes that had been lost since antiquity was rediscovered in a dusty Constantinople library. The valuable parchment on which it was written had been scrubbed and reused for some religious text. But the original could still just about be made out underneath it. As one historian put it: “Our admiration of the genius of the greatest mathematician of antiquity must surely be increased, if that were possible,” by this “astounding” work, which draws creative inspiration from the mechanical law of the lever to solve advanced geometrical problems. If even this brilliant work by antiquity’s greatest geometer only survived by the skin of its teeth and dumb luck, just imagine how many more works are lost forever.

Also in the 20th century, divers chanced upon an ancient shipwreck, which turned out to contain a complex machine (the so-called Antikythera mechanism). Again historians were astonished: “From all we know of science and technology in the Hellenistic age we should have felt that such a device could not exist.” “This singular artifact is now identified as an astronomical or calendrical calculating device involving a very sophisticated arrangement of more than thirty gear-wheels. It transcends all that we had previously known from textual and literary sources and may involve a completely new appraisal of the scientific technology of the Hellenistic period.”

Another example. The Greeks appear to have been much further ahead than conventional sources would lead one to believe in a number of mathematical fields. One example is combinatorics. Of this entire mathematical field little more survives than one stray remark mentioned parenthetically in a non-mathematical work by Plutarch:

“Chrysippus said that the number of intertwinings obtainable from ten simple statements is over one million. Hipparchus contradicted him, showing that affirmatively there are 103,049 intertwinings.”

“This passage stumped commentators until 1994,” when a mathematician realised that it corresponds to the correct solution of a complex combinatorial problem worked out in modern Europe in 1870, thereby forcing “a reevaluation of our notions of what was known about combinatorics in Antiquity.” It is undeniable from this evidence that this entire field of mathematics must have reached an advanced stage, yet not one single treatise on it survives.

These are just a few striking examples illustrating an indisputable point: the Hellenistic age was extremely sophisticated mathematically and scientifically, and we don’t even know the half of it.

Scores of key treatises are lost, and we are forced to rely on later commentators and compilers for accounts of the works of Hellenistic authors. It’s like trying to understand modern science and mathematics from popularisations in the Sunday newspaper. It’s vastly oversimplified and dumbed-down. It reduces complex science to one or two simplistic ideas while conveying nothing whatsoever of the often massive technical groundwork that it is based on. That’s the state of our sources for much Greek science: all that has come down to use are some clickbait headlines and blurbs by people who are themselves not scientists and wouldn’t understand the first thing about the technical details of the works they are trying to summarise.

Actually this is a misleading analogy. The situation is even worse than this. Here is how one historian puts it:

“Nearly all that we know on observations and experiments among the Greeks comes from compilations and manuals composed centuries later, by men who were not themselves interested in science, and for readers who were even less so. Even worse, these works were to a great extent inspired by the desire to discredit science by emphasizing the way in which men of science contradicted each other, and the paradoxical character of the conclusions at which they arrived. This being the object, it was obviously useless, and even out of place, to say much about the methods employed in arriving at the conclusions. It suited Epicurean and Sceptic, as also Christian, writers to represent them as arbitrary dogmas. We can get a slight idea of the situation by imagining, some centuries hence, contemporary science as represented by elementary manuals, second- and third-hand compilations, drawn up in a spirit hostile to science and scientific methods. Such being the nature of the evidence with which we have to deal, it is obvious that all the actual examples of the use of sound scientific methods that we can discover will carry much more weight than would otherwise be the case. If we can point to indubitable examples of the use of experiment and observation, we are justified in supposing that there were others of which we know nothing because they did not happen to interest the compilers on whom we are dependent. As a matter of fact, there are a fair number of such examples.”

In previous episodes we have discussed the many ways in which Greek sources already showed full awareness of many things often attributed to Galileo. Taking this context of filtering and lost sources into account means that we should give all the more weight to those arguments.

Sadly, however, the lack of appreciation for science among these ignorant commentators continues among scholars today. I collected some quotes on this by some very respectable classicists of today.

“The state of editions and translations of ancient scientific works as a whole remains scandalous by comparison with the torrent of modern works on anything unscientific — about 100 papers per year on Homer, for example. An embarrassingly large number of classicists are ignorant of Greek scientific works.”

“Classicists include many who have chosen Latin and Greek precisely to escape from science at the very early stage of specialisation that our schools’ curricula permit: and often a very successful escape it is, to judge from the depth of ignorance of science ancient and modern that it often secures.”

It is remarkable how strongly these authors make this point. The first quote is from Lloyd, the Cambridge professor. It takes a lot for people like that to almost condemn their colleagues to their face. They wouldn’t do this if it wasn’t serious.

Little wonder then that Greek science is systematically misunderstood and undervalued, and that simplistic ideas of philosophical authors and commentators are substituted for the real thing.

Galileo’s relation to the preceding philosophical tradition has been systematically misunderstood because of this.

How did modern science grow out of mathematical and philosophical tradition? The humanistic perspective is that science needed both: it was born through the unification of the technical but insular know-how of the mathematicians with the conceptual depth and holistic vision of the philosophers. The mathematical perspective is that science is what the mathematicians were doing all along. Science did not need philosophy to be its eye-opener and better half; it merely needed the philosophers to step out of the way and let the mathematicians do their thing. So which is it?

Many historians have tried to stress commonalities between Galileo and the Aristotelian philosophers who preceded him. That is to say, they argue for the “continuity thesis” which says that the so-called “Scientific Revolution” was not a radical or revolutionary break with previous thought. Here is what they say:

“Galileo essentially pursued a progressive Aristotelianism [during the first half of his life—the period of] positive growth that laid the foundation for the new sciences.”

“A particular school of Renaissance Aristotelians, located at the University of Padua, constructed a very sophisticated methodology for experimental science; … Galileo knew this school of thought and built upon its results; this goes a long way toward explaining the birth of early modern science.”

“The mechanical and physical science of which the present day is so proud comes to us through an uninterrupted sequence of almost imperceptible refinements from the doctrines professed within the Schools of the Middle Ages.”

“Galileo was clearly the heir of the medieval kinematicists.”

I agree with these authors that “those great truths for which Galileo received credit” are not his. But the notion that they were first conceived in Aristotelian schools of philosophy is wrongheaded.

The argument of these historians is based on a simple logic. First they show that various concepts of “Galilean” science are prefigured in earlier sources. Then they want to infer from this that these sources marked the true beginning of the scientific revolution. But in order to draw this inference they need two assumptions: first, that Galileo was the father of modern science; and second, that the Greeks were nowhere near the same accomplishments. These two assumptions are simply taken for granted by these authors, as a matter of common knowledge. But in reality both assumptions are dead wrong, and therefore the inference to the significance of the Aristotelian sources is unwarranted.

It is interesting that the continuity thesis on the one hand devalues the contributions of Galileo, yet at the same time desperately needs to reassert the traditional view that “Galileo has a clear and undisputed title as the ‘father of modern science’,” as one of these historians puts it. They need to say this because this is what gives them the one point of connection they are able to establish between medieval and modern science. The entire argument stands and falls with this false premiss. Therefore, if one proves, as I have done before, that Galileo was a mediocre scientists of negligible importance to the mathematically competent people who actually achieved the scientific revolution, then the continuity thesis collapses like a house of cards.

The defenders of the continuity thesis are equally ineffectual in establishing the second false premiss of their argument, namely the alleged absence of these “new” ideas in Greek thought. In fact, even continuity thesis advocates make no secret of the fact that the medieval tradition was built on “remnants of Alexandrian science.” For example, “although we are left with few monuments from the profound research of the Ancients into the laws of equilibrium, those few are worthy of eternal admiration.” Obviously, “masterpieces of Greek science [such as the works of] Pappus, and especially Archimedes, are proof that the deductive method can be applied with as much rigor to the field of mechanics as to the demonstrations of geometry.” All of that are quotes form Pierre Duhem, a passionate advocate of the continuity thesis.

How can people like Duhem acknowledge these “masterpieces” “worthy of eternal admiration” from antiquity, yet at the same time attribute the scientific revolution to medieval or renaissance philosophers? Here’s how. By writing off those ancient works as minor technical footnotes to an otherwise thoroughly Aristotelian paradigm. Only if this picture is accepted can any kind of greatness be ascribed to the pre-Galileans, as is evident from passages such as these:

“Some philosophers in medieval universities were teaching ideas about motion and mechanics that were totally non-Aristotelian [and] were consciously based on criticisms of Aristotle’s own pronouncements.”

“Admittedly, most of these significant medieval mechanical doctrines were formed within the Aristotelian framework of mechanics. But these medieval doctrines contained within them the seeds of a critical refutation of that mechanics.”

“The medieval mechanics occupied an important middle position between Aristotelian and Newtonian mechanics. [Hence it was] an important link in man’s efforts to represent the laws that concern bodies at rest and in movement.”

“The impressive set of departures from Aristotelianism achieved by medieval science nevertheless failed to produce genuine efforts to reconstruct, or replace, the Aristotelian world picture.”

If Aristotle is taken as the baseline, this looks quite impressive indeed. But why should Aristotle be accepted as the default opinion? Aristotle was one particular philosopher who was a nobody in mathematics and lived well before the golden age of Greek science. Medieval and renaissance thinkers indeed mustered up the courage to challenge isolated claims of his teachings almost two thousand years later, while mostly retaining his overall outlook. This does not constitute great open-mindedness and progress. Rather it is a sign of small-mindedness that these people paid so much attention to Aristotle at all in the first place. In my view, it is not so much impressive that they deviated a bit from Aristotle as it is deplorable that they framed so much of what they did relative to Aristotle, even when they disagreed with him. This is very different from post-Aristotelian thought in Greek times, where there is no evidence that any mathematician paid any attention to Aristotle’s mechanics.

In any case, “extravagant claims for the modernity of medieval concepts” suffer from “serious defects.” One historian has summarised it well:

“There was no such thing as a fourteenth-century science of mechanics in the sense of a general theory of local motion applicable throughout nature, and based on a few unified principles. By searching the literature of late medieval physics for just those ideas and those pieces of quantitative analysis that turned out, three centuries later, to be important in seventeenth-century mechanics, one can find them; and one can construct a “medieval science of mechanics” that appears to form a coherent whole and to be built on new foundations replacing those of Aristotle’s physics. But this is an illusion, and an anachronistic fiction, which we are able to construct only because Galileo and Newton gave us the pattern by which to select the right pieces and put them together.”

The main piece of such precursorism is the so-called “mean speed theorem.” This is a completely trivial result. You can visualise it in terms of a graph with time on the x-axis and velocity on the y-axis. Suppose you plot the graph of a uniformly accelerated motion, such as a freely falling object. It makes a straight line going from the bottom left to the to right. It starts from no velocity and goes to a certain final velocity. How far did the thing travel? Distance travelled is the area under the graph. So it’s the area of a triangle. Base times height over 2. That is to say, the time of fall, times half the final velocity. Or another way of putting it is that half the final velocity is the same thing as the average velocity. The triangle has the same area as a rectangle with the same base and half the height. The “mean speed theorem” is just this. In terms of distance covered, a uniformly accelerated motion is equivalent to a constant-speed motion with the same average speed. A very simple thing to see.

Some people praise this as an “impressive” achievement of the middle ages—”probably the most outstanding single medieval contribution to the history of physics,” derived by “admirable and ingenious” reasoning, according to one historian. Even though these medieval authors did absolutely nothing with this trivial theorem and only deduced it to illustrate the notion of uniform change abstractly within Aristotelian philosophy. Later the theorem became central in “Galilean” mechanics since free fall is uniformly accelerated. But it “was, in fact, never applied to motion in fall from rest during the 14th, or even in the 15th century” (only in the mid-16th century there is a passing remark to this effect within the Aristotelian tradition, “without any accompanying evidence”).

Let us not radically inflate our esteem for the Middle Ages by anachronistically praising them for pointing out a trivial thing that centuries later took on a significance of which they had no inkling. Let us instead recognise the theorem for the trifle that it is. Then we shall also not have any need to be surprised when it turns out that Babylonian astronomers assumed it without fanfare thousands of years earlier still. The utterly trivial “mean speed theorem” was implicitly taken for granted in Babylonian astronomy. They were too good mathematicians to make a big fuss about something so evident, unlike the medieval philosophers who sat around a proved this at length. They were so bad at mathematics that this trivial thing was the cutting edge to them, in their ignorance.

Galileo owes other debts to previous philosophical tradition as well, according to many historians. For example, we are told that there are “unmistakeable Jesuit influences in Galileo’s work”: “Above all Galileo was intent in following out Clavius’s program of applying mathematics to the study of nature and to generating a mathematical physics.” That’s a quote from Wallace. The preposterous notion that this was “Clavius’s” program can only enter one’s mind if one only reads philosophy. It was obviously Archimedes’s program, except, unlike Clavius, he proved his point by actually carrying it out instead of sermonising about what one ought to do in philosophical prose. Philosophers (ancient and modern alike) have a tendency to place disproportionate value on explaining something conceptually as opposed to actually doing it. After all, that is virtually the definition of philosophy. Hence they praise certain Aristotelians for explaining some supposedly profound principles of scientific method even when “it is quite clear that [none of them] ever applied his advocated methods to actual scientific problems.”

Descartes—a mathematically creative person—knew better: “we ought not to believe an alchemist who boasts he has the technique of making gold, unless he is extremely wealthy; and by the same token we should not believe the learned writer who promises new sciences, unless he demonstrates that he has discovered many things that have been unknown up till now.” Unfortunately, such basic common sense is often lacking among historians and philosophers assigning credit for basic principles of the scientific method.

There is a contradiction in the way modern historians try to trace many aspects of the scientific revolution to roots in the middle ages. On the one hand these historians like to claim that the traditional view of the scientific revolution is ahistorical and based on an anachronistic mindset, whereas their own account that sees continuity with the middle ages is more sensitive to how people actually thought at the time itself. Ironically, however, their view, which is supposed to be more true to the historical actors’ way of thinking, is actually all the more blatantly at odds with how virtually all leaders of the scientific revolution thought of the middle ages. One historian summarises it accurately: “The scientific achievement of the Middle Ages was held in unanimous contempt from Galileo’s time onward by those who adhered to the new science. Leibniz’ scathing verdict ‘barbaric physics’ neatly encapsulates the reigning sentiment.” This was not for nothing. Leibniz was an erudite scholar well versed in the philosophy of the schools. But he was also an excellent mathematician. The latter enabled him to pass a sound judgement on the “barbaric” science of the middle ages.

from Intellectual Mathematics from Blogger https://ift.tt/2OKtmmK

[bountyofbeads]

A presidency of one’: Key federal agencies increasingly compelled to benefit Trump

By Philip Rucker and Robert Costa |

Published October 02 at 6:53 AM ET | Washington Post | Posted October 2, 2019 8:15 PM ET |

As the impeachment drama has unfolded over the past week, a series of disclosures has illuminated President Trump’s command over key federal agencies, revealing how he has compelled them to pursue his personal and political goals, investigate his enemies and lend legitimacy to his theories about the 2016 election.

The Justice Department has prioritized a probe that the president hopes will discredit a finding by U.S. intelligence agencies that Russia interfered in the 2016 election to help him win. As part of that effort, Attorney General William P. Barr has met overseas with foreign intelligence officials to enlist their aid in “investigating the investigators,” as the right’s rallying cry goes, and dig into the president’s suspicions.

The State Department, meanwhile, has been investigating the email records of as many as 130 current and former department officials who sent messages to the private email account of Hillary Clinton, the former secretary of state and Trump’s 2016 opponent. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo defied Congress on Tuesday by attempting to block the depositions of five department employees called to testify in the impeachment inquiry.

The inquiry itself was sparked by a July 25 phone call in which Trump asked his Ukrainian counterpart to investigate unsubstantiated corruption allegations against former vice president Joe Biden, a leading 2020 Democratic presidential candidate, and his son.

In each of these instances, the president or administration officials have strongly defended their conduct as proper and above board.

But taken together, they illustrate the sweeping reach of Trump’s power and the culture he has spawned inside the government. The president’s personal concerns have become priorities of departments that traditionally have operated with some degree of political independence from the White House — and their leaders are engaging their boss’s obsessions.

“Barr and Pompeo are stuck in the fog machine. They seem captives of the president’s perverse worldview,” said Timothy Naftali, a historian and former director of the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum. “Authoritarian regimes have this problem all the time . . . when all government activity is the product of the id of the leader. But in a republic, that’s unusual.”

Most Republicans have stood by Trump. Sen. Lindsey O. Graham (S.C.), echoing many of them, told reporters it would be “insane” to impeach Trump and said the exchange with Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky was appropriate.

Trump’s moves underscore his transformation as president. He arrived in Washington a neophyte uncertain about how to operate the machinery of government. But now, in his third year in office, Trump has grown confident about exercising power, disposing of aides who acted as guardrails and elevating those who prove their loyalty by following his orders.

As the president said last month after John Bolton’s abrupt exit as national security adviser, “It’s very easy actually to work with me. You know why it’s easy? Because I make all the decisions.”

Trump was sworn in as the 45th president with less governmental experience than any of his predecessors. His advisers tried to tutor him about the three branches of government and the constitutional balance of powers. The general ethos among Trump’s top aides then was to protect institutions and moderate some of the president’s swings — to resist rather than follow his impulses, as described by one former senior White House official, who spoke on the condition of anonymity to share a candid assessment.

Since then, Trump has become more emboldened to make decisions and has systematically dispensed with much of his early team, including former defense secretary Jim Mattis, former secretary of state Rex Tillerson, former White House chiefs of staff Reince Priebus and John F. Kelly, former White House counsel Donald McGahn, former national security adviser H.R. McMaster, former economic adviser Gary Cohn and others.

“I’m not sure there are many, if any, left who view as their responsibility trying to help educate, moderate, enlighten and persuade — or even advise in many cases,” the former senior official said. “There’s a new ethos: This is a presidency of one.”

“It’s Trump unleashed, unchained, unhinged,” this official added. “He continues to go further and further and further, and now I don’t think there’s anybody telling him, ‘No.’ ”

Some of Trump’s closest aides and friends strongly contest the suggestion that he is unbridled and pursuing his personal interests at the expense of the nation. Instead, they cast him as a politician who is curious, at times to a fault, about the investigations into his 2016 campaign and determined to reveal more about those efforts. They shrug off his moves as “Trump being Trump” and part of the president’s showmanship in driving the national political debate as opposed to a possible constitutional reckoning.

“He’s actually very calm,” said one White House official who was not authorized to speak publicly. “He’s not raging. He’s not fuming. He can’t stand what some people write or say on television, sure, but his presidency isn’t consumed by that.”

Sam Nunberg, a former Trump campaign adviser, said the president has long wanted to be the sole driver of his message, with everyone else playing supporting roles — which is how he ran his business and 2016 campaign from his corner office on the 26th floor of Trump Tower in New York.

“He wants to be the one adjusting and taking the lead on where it goes, not adjusting to others,” Nunberg said. “It goes back to how he navigated network TV, the tabloids and business publicity. That’s his playbook.”

Some outside scholars have a different interpretation. Trump’s moves represent a fundamental reorientation of American democracy, said Timothy Snyder, a Yale history professor and author of “On Tyranny,” a resistance guide to what he describes as America’s turn toward authoritarianism.

“Rather than having the boring system we take for granted, where you have laws based on facts, instead you have a personality who makes up his own reality,” Snyder said. “At first, that reality is just confusing and seems to gum up the works, but after a while, the leader starts to draw people into that reality by making them defend it or making them prove it. This is what’s happening here.”

In Trump’s Washington, many administration officials have calculated that if they do not enthusiastically wade into Trump’s riptide of grievances and personal pursuits, they risk being ridiculed or sidelined by the president, as was the case with Bolton, a hawk whom Trump has mocked since his departure as “Mr. Tough Guy.”

The implicit day-to-day charge for many Trump advisers is simple, according to aides and other officials familiar with the president’s Cabinet and West Wing staff: Figure out how to handle or even polish Trump’s whims and statements, but do not have any illusion that you can temper his relentless personality, heavy consumption of cable news or thirst for political combat.

Acquiescence is central to survival. Trump has bonded with aides who take his running complaints about the “deep state” and “fake news” seriously, along with his embrace of people and positions outside of the mainstream. The leading members of Trump’s inner circle dutifully work to address his concerns, sometimes by directing federal resources.

Officials including Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin, for example, have worked to block Democratic lawmakers and others from obtaining access to Trump’s tax returns, which he has refused to disclose publicly.

The list of Trump loyalists pulled into his maneuvers begins at the top. Vice President Pence traveled to Europe in early September and met with Zelensky and urged him to address “corruption,” seeming to reiterate the message Trump communicated to Zelensky in July about investigating the Bidens. This was before promised U.S. military aid to Ukraine was released.

Barr’s role in the investigation into the Russia probe’s origins, which is being conducted by U.S. Attorney John Durham in Connecticut, is extraordinary in part because the probe seeks evidence of misconduct within his own Justice Department to support the conspiracy theory — embraced by Trump and advanced on Fox News — that the Russia inquiry was corrupt and predicated on undermining Trump.

Snyder said the investigation Trump sought and Barr is pursuing fits a pattern of behavior in which leaders try to disprove or undermine facts — in this case, the conclusion that Russia interfered in the 2016 election to help Trump win — with other investigations.

“The idea of investigating the investigation is that you cast doubt on the boring factual stuff,” he said. “Even if you don’t win with your adventurous fiction, you also win if your adventurous fiction casts doubt on the boring facts.”

The White House and Justice Department have defended this review of the investigation into possible connections between Russia and members of the Trump campaign as appropriate; Barr told Congress in April that he believed “spying did occur.”

Barr’s interest in the probe is unsurprising to several of his associates, who said this week he is a headstrong and deeply conservative man who at this point in his career has grown disdainful of the Democratic Party, the federal government and the news media, criticizing them in private as biased and skewed against the president.

Trump’s advisers say he respects Barr’s approach and considers him “tough,” especially compared to former attorney general Jeff Sessions, who in 2017 recused himself from the Russia investigation.

“We have a great attorney general now,” Trump said of Barr in July. “He’s strong, and he’s smart.”

Impeachment inquiry puts new focus on Giuliani’s work for prominent figures in Ukraine

By Rosalind S. Helderman, Tom Hamburger, Paul Sonne and Josh Dawsey | Published October 02 at 6:00 AM ET | Washington Post | Posted October 2, 2019 8:15 PM ET |

The hunt by President Trump’s attorney Rudolph W. Giuliani for material in Ukraine damaging to Democrats has put a spotlight on business ties he has had in the former Soviet republic for at least a decade, work that has introduced him to high-level Ukrainian financial and political circles.

Giuliani has said he has been working free solely to benefit his client, Trump, as he has sought information from Ukrainian officials — an effort that has spurred a House impeachment inquiry into whether the president abused his power.

However, House investigators are now seeking records about Giuliani’s past clientele in Ukraine, including Pavel Fuks, a wealthy developer who financed consulting work Giuliani did in 2017 for the city of Kharkiv. That same year, according to court filings, Fuks said he was banned from entering the United States for five years. The documents do not specify a reason.

House committees have also requested documents and depositions from two of Giuliani’s current clients, Florida-based business executives who have been pursuing opportunities in Ukraine for a new liquefied-natural-gas venture.

The men, Lev Parnas and Igor Fruman, have been assisting Giuliani’s push to get Ukrainian officials to investigate former vice president Joe Biden and his son, as well as Giuliani’s claim that Democrats conspired with Ukrainians in the 2016 campaign.

The drama roiling Washington has intensified scrutiny of Giuliani’s private work as a lawyer and consultant around the globe and his unorthodox decision to continue to represent clients with foreign interests while serving as the president’s personal lawyer.

How Giuliani navigates between the needs of his foreign clients and those of the president is unclear. The former New York mayor, whose private security and consulting firm does not disclose its clients, has never registered as a foreign lobbyist, saying he does not do work that would require such filings.

He has accepted work from a number of foreign interests whose policy goals have been at odds with U.S. policy, including the Mujahideen-e Khalq, or MEK, an Iranian resistance group operating in exile that was previously listed as a terrorist group by the State Department, a designation removed in 2012.

This week, Giuliani was scheduled to speak at a Kremlin-sponsored conference in Armenia, hours before appearances there by Russian President Vladi­mir Putin and Iranian President Hassan Rouhani. He abruptly pulled out of the event Friday after it was disclosed by The Washington Post.

Giuliani defended his foreign work, arguing that the identities and interests of his clients are “irrelevant” to his uncompensated efforts for Trump, which he said are permitted and at times assisted by State Department officials.

“My other clients are paying me for the work I do for them. Nobody is paying me for a single thing I’m doing for Donald J. Trump,” he said in interviews.

Giuliani said questions about his foreign clients are “diversions by Democrats hoping to shoot the messenger” and stop him from pursuing significant cases of corruption and foreign interference.

Giuliani said he has had no clients in Ukraine since 2017. But he would not say whether he is now being paid by Parnas and Fruman, emigres from the former Soviet Union who Parnas said have been pursuing opportunities in Ukraine for their natural gas venture.

The two men have little history of political involvement but emerged suddenly in a circle of elite Trump donors after Parnas gave $50,000 to support Trump’s election in 2016 and a pro-Trump super PAC reported receiving $325,000 last year from a company the two men incorporated. The House committees have asked them to turn over all documents and communications related to the donations.

Parnas said that Giuliani is an attorney for the two men but declined to say whether Giuliani is being paid or what services he is providing them. Fruman did not respond to requests for comment.

National security experts said Giuliani’s simultaneous work for Trump and other parties makes it unclear whose interests he is representing.

“It is problematic that the same person is one day portrayed as a private individual and the next day as someone working on behalf of the U.S. government and the next day working on behalf of Donald Trump personally,” said Michael McFaul, an ambassador to Russia during the Obama administration.

“He has every right to represent private clients,” McFaul added, but Giuliani’s activity in the former Soviet Union, he said, “muddies the waters and creates dangerous confusion” in an already unsettled region of the world.

‘A BIG FRIEND OF UKRAINE ’

In the past decade and a half, Giuliani has built an international consulting practice with government and private-sector clients in South America, the Middle East and Europe.

His work in Ukraine dates to at least 2008, when he said he was hired as a political consultant to Vitali Klitschko, a former boxing champion who was making a then-unsuccessful bid to become mayor of Kiev.

Klitschko tapped Giuliani’s consulting firm to advise him on combating corruption and crime in Kiev in his second run for mayor, Giuliani said in an interview.

In a statement to The Post, Klitschko, who won the Kiev mayor’s office in 2014, said he first met Giuliani in 2006 during a visit the former New York mayor made to Ukraine. Since then, they have met many times in New York and Kiev, Klitschko said. He said he “does not recall” any formal consultation relationship with Giuliani and said that no money changed hands.

“I know Rudolfo Giuliani as a big friend of Ukraine and one of the most successful mayors of the world,” he wrote to The Post. “And considering our good personal relationship sometimes I ask for his advice on municipal issues.”

The Kiev mayor has been in a dispute with newly elected Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky, who wants to restrain Klitschko’s powers. Giuliani tweeted in September that “reducing the power of Mayor Klitschko of Kiev was a very bad sign” from the new Zelensky administration.

Giuliani told The Post that he has been advising Klitschko recently “only as a friend” and not for compensation.

In 2017, Giuliani took on another Ukrainian client with a rising profile: real estate and energy tycoon Pavel Fuks.

After leaving his native Kharkiv, a predominantly Russian-speaking city in Ukraine’s east, Fuks first made his career in real estate in Russia, according to a profile in the Ukrainian magazine Novoe Vremya.

Fuks has said that he hosted Ivanka Trump and Donald Trump Jr. in Moscow in 2006 when he was negotiating with their father about the possibility of licensing Trump branding for a development in Moscow, a deal that didn’t pan out.

He returned to Ukraine after the 2014 uprising in Kiev’s Independence Square that brought Western-leaning President Petro Poroshenko to power. Russia included him on its list of Ukrainians it placed under sanctions in 2018.

Fuks also has interests in the Ukrainian gas industry, according to Ukrainian news accounts. That puts him in the same sector as former ecology minister Mykola Zlochevsky, who owns one of the country’s largest gas producers and brought then-Vice President Joe Biden’s son Hunter onto his board.

In 2017, Fuks sought to attend Trump’s inauguration. According to a lawsuit he filed in federal court in California in June, the wealthy Ukrainian paid a California Republican fundraiser $200,000 for access to elite inaugural events.

In the suit, Fuks alleged that the fundraiser had failed to deliver and that he had to watch the inauguration at a hotel bar. After he sought a refund from the fundraiser, Fuks said that his visa was revoked and that the United States instituted a five-year travel ban against him, according to court filings. The fundraiser has denied Fuks’s allegations or having any role in the ban.

That same year, Fuks hired Giuliani’s company to help his hometown of Kharkiv update its emergency response system, Giuliani said in an interview.

Giuliani said that the work was similar to work he has performed for other international cities and that Fuks had funded it essentially as a “donation.”

“He thought it was good for his business and for the Holocaust museum he was preparing at the time,” Giuliani said.

Fuks did not respond to a request for comment. A spokesman said he hired Giuliani’s firm because the former mayor is “well known in Ukraine and he’s well respected for the work he did in New York City to fight corruption and to build infrastructure.”

Giuliani said he met with then-President Poroshenko in late 2017, on his most recent trip to Ukraine, to explain the emergency management plan he developed for Fuks’s hometown.

“They were very impressed,” Giuliani said. “You could write that it was brilliant.”

The project in Kharkiv, funded by Fuks, was his most recent contract in the former Soviet republic, Giuliani said.

“I don’t have a client in that region of the world right now,” he said.

A tip in 2018

According to Giuliani, his unpaid Ukrainian work for Trump began in November 2018, when he said he was approached by an American investigator who claimed to have evidence that Ukrainians had quietly pushed the idea that Russia coordinated its 2016 election interference with the Trump campaign.

Parnas said in an interview that he was eating lunch with Giuliani when the investigator approached Giuliani with the tip.

He described Giuliani as a “very good friend” whom he got to know while fundraising for Trump’s 2016 campaign. “The relationship bonded and built over time. We’re just very close,” he said.

Parnas, a 47-year-old former stockbroker who was born in Ukraine, said that he and Fruman began to serve as conduits for people in the country who had information to share with Giuliani. He said Fruman, who was born in Belarus and runs an import-export business in the United States and a luxury goods and services company in Odessa, is particularly well connected there.

“We took it upon ourselves as our patriotic duty, basically, whatever information we could get, to pass it on and to basically validate it as best as we could,” Parnas said.

It remains unclear what work Giuliani has been doing for the two men. In a tweet in May, Giuliani described the duo as “clients.” Giuliani and Parnas were seen together as recently as Sept. 20, when reporters for Reuters spotted them at Trump International Hotel in Washington.

Giuliani declined to describe the two men’s role in his Ukrainian investigation, in which he has met with current and former Ukrainian officials in the United States and Europe, aiming to collect proof for his theory that Ukraine colluded with Democrats to undermine Trump.

Parnas said he and Fruman helped set up a Skype call for Giuliani in late 2018 with Viktor Shokin, the ousted prosecutor general, and an in-person meeting in New York in January 2019 with Yuri Lutsenko, then Ukraine’s prosecutor general. (Lutsenko said in an interview that he met Fruman and Parnas in New York and that the pair “sometimes helped with translations,” but he said that “prosecutors” whom he did not identify set up his meetings with Giuliani.)

Parnas told BuzzFeed, which has reported extensively on the two men, that he and Fruman were not paid for their efforts to connect Giuliani to Ukrainian officials.

But Parnas acknowledged to The Post that their work with Giuliani came during the same months that he and Fruman were “coincidentally” traveling back and forth to Ukraine to try to land contracts for a new liquefied natural gas company they incorporated in Delaware last year.

At one point, the duo pitched the idea to the Ukrainian state oil and gas giant Naftogaz, a proposal that did not result in a deal, according to people familiar with the meeting.

Parnas did not respond to a question about Naftogaz. But he said their company has so far not secured business in Ukraine, in part because of the publicity over their involvement with Giuliani. He said they continue to pursue opportunities in other countries.

SUPPORT FOR TRUMP

Parnas made his first large political contribution in 2016, when he gave $50,000 to Trump Victory, a joint fundraising committee for the Republican National Committee, the Trump campaign and GOP state parties, campaign finance records show.

Parnas told The Post that he decided to get involved politically because he was a passionate supporter of Trump’s candidacy after growing up in New York and selling Trump condos in the city when Trump’s late father, Fred, was still running the Trump Organization.

In May 2018, about six months before the men began working with Giuliani on his Biden investigation, a Florida business established by Parnas received a $1.26 million wire transfer from an account whose owner was represented by a real estate lawyer who specializes in assisting foreign buyers of U.S. property, court documents and corporate filings show.

Two days later, America First, the main pro-Trump super PAC, reported receiving $325,000 from a company Parnas and Fruman had incorporated the previous month called Global Energy Producers.

Last year, the nonprofit Campaign Legal Center filed a still-pending complaint with the Federal Election Commission over the donation, alleging that it appeared to be a straw donation that masked the identity of the original contributor.

Parnas told the Miami Herald last week that the money for the super PAC donation was from proceeds from the sale of a Miami-area condominium. Kelly Sadler, a spokeswoman for the super PAC, declined to comment on “ongoing legal matters.”

“I can tell you that we scrupulously adhere to all laws and regulations,” she said.

The real estate lawyer involved in the transfer, Russell S. Jacobs, did not respond to requests for comment.

Meanwhile, public filings suggest that the two men had financial challenges during the same period.

In March, a Russian American energy executive who used to run a Kazakh mining company filed a lawsuit against both Parnas and Fruman in Florida, claiming they had failed to repay $100,000 he lent them last year, court filings show.

In the suit, the executive, Felix Vulis, alleged that the men had told him that their close relationship with Giuliani and their recent campaign contributions would help their new energy company become the “largest exporter of liquid natural gas in the United States.”

Vulis told The Post that the suit had been settled, declining to comment further.

In 2016, a federal judge in New York ordered Parnas to pay more than $500,000 to an investor in a failed project to produce a Hollywood film called “Anatomy of an Assassin.” Parnas has still not repaid the money and is being pursued over the debt in Florida courts, according to court records.

“I’ve pored over Mr. Parnas’s finances for almost two years, and I’ve seen nothing to suggest that he could afford a lawyer of Mr. Giuliani’s caliber,” said Tony Andre, a Miami attorney who represents the film investor.

Parnas did not respond to requests for comments on his financial difficulties. But he told the Miami Herald last week that he didn’t know “anybody that has only good in their business.”

“I’ve never done anything illegal, I’ve never been charged, I’ve never been near anything like that,” he added.

In the past few years, Parnas and Fruman have posted photos on social media of themselves meeting with the president and his son Donald Trump Jr. and attending events at the Trump Organization’s Mar-a-Lago Club and at the White House.

In June 2018, they attended a two-day “leadership summit” for the America First super PAC held at the Trump hotel in Washington, according to a VIP list distributed by hotel management and obtained by The Post.

Both men were listed as members of the “Trump Card” loyalty program and as repeat customers of the hotel.

According to the records, Giuliani — a “gold level” Trump Card member — was expected to arrive on the day the two men checked out.

David Fahrenthold and Alice Crites in Washington and Michael Birnbaum, Natalie Gryvnyak and David L. Stern in Kiev contributed to this report.

[hashtagblogfan]

Most Strange Secrets From The Past No One Can Explain

Most Strange Secrets From The Past No One Can Explain

  Some events in the history of the world seem to leave a permanent question mark in the minds, despite the great technological advances, we have gathered these Most Strange Secrets From The Past No One Can Explain

    Does Mu continent exist in reality or is it just a myth?

Mu is a legendary continent that disappeared 14,000 years ago and has become a source of fiction. According to these accounts, those who left the continent of Mu created civilizations such as Atlantis, and this continent was located between Asia and the Americas, much larger than the continent of Australia. Mu civilization, characterized by greatness as a result of a disaster 12,000 years ago.

There is a very interesting text concerning the sinking of the Mu continent on the walls of the pyramids of the Temple of Inscriptions in the city of Totihuacan, in the city of Miskik. The text says: “A terrible earthquake occurred in the thirteenth century, the continent of Mu was the victim of the disaster, Mu collapsed civilization, after the night rose twice, flooded, the earth flew into the air several times and returned, the disaster caused the death of 64 million people.

Mu civilization is only a myth, because the rocks that make up the continents (aluminum-silicon) must swim over the rocks (silicon-magnesium) that form the ocean floor, according to the laws of physics, but so far No rocky discoveries have been made that could form Mu to this day. However, he found inscriptions found on carbon rocks in China and its neighboring countries dating back 14,000 years: “Our continent sank and we fled here.”

Where was Atlantis?

  Atlantis is a continent and mythological civilization mentioned by Plato in his books, Plato mentioned the continent of Atlantis in his books for the first time in his conversations Timaeus and Critias. According to Atlantis, a very rich continent, ruled by the nobles, Atlantis captured the continent of Africa and most of the western part of the continent of Europe. Plato says that the continent of Atlantis tried to occupy Athens before 9,500 BC but it did not work, and then the entire continent sank under water . Many historians see Atlantis as a virtual civilization created by Plato to describe his own political theories, yet there is no consensus that the stories about Atlantis were derived from old stories, not just stories Plato imagines.

American researcher Robert Sarmst reviewed 50 material references to Atlantis through information extracted from Plato’s books relating to the Atlantis site, but his attempts were insufficient. Based on this, geophysicist Dr. John K., in a joint work with Dr. Hull, devised a three-dimensional map of the region with measurements of the depth of the place. According to Sarmast, Atlantis was located between Syria and Cyprus, and the highest peak of sunken Atlantis is Cyprus now.

Read Also On Hashtag3r.Com : 

Exact Areas of libido in women’s body

10 Tips to Change Your Life for the Better

28+ Before and After Wonderfull Pictures Showing How The World Has Changed

The 15 signs of self-confidence How many do you own so far ?

15 Things that a happy person does not do it at all

What is sexual intelligence ? Are you sexually intelligent ?

The 5 strongest mafias in the world today you will not expect their wealth

15+ The most beautiful women fans in World Cup Russia 2018

45+ Wonderfull Photos from our Beautiful Planet Nature

For Cats Lovers Check These 16 Beautiful Cats Pictures

The most beautiful 16 islands around the world

Who is the Danish fan girl of World Cup Russia 2018 ?

If give up these things Then you can totaly control your life

Pictures : The most beautiful women in the World Cup Russia 2018

40+ The most beautiful women fans in World Cup Russia 2018

Psychologists says : Staying single is better than being married

Pictures world’s cities before 100 years ago

Austrian artist expresses the sad reality of our world with these illustrations

What happens to your body when you feel hungry ?

30+ Best Dogs Photographer Pictures 2018 For Dog Lovers

20+ Beautiful symmetry and harmony Pictures

The worst kind of women Keep away from them to survive in your life

Sony World Photography Winning Pictures Awards 2018

28+ Before and After Wonderfull Pictures Showing How The World Has Changed

A shark bites Katrina Zarotsky while she is taking pictures

In high temperatures case 5 ways to stop sweating and avoid embarrassing situations

These 13 things mentally powerful people don’t do it

40+ Illustrations Reveal What Is Wrong With Modern Society

How do celebrities would look like if they were alive ?

  Naacal civilization

naacal is a civilization that allegedly existed in the past, and gained its fame from the British writer James Chur Schaward. The naacal civilization found by James Chur Choward in western Tibet opened great doors to the mysteries of Mu and Atlantis, although there is no scientific discovery of the civilization of naacal . August Paulingon was the first to speak about the naacal civilization. According to August, the people of naacal were heavenly missionaries of the Mayan people, and it was an ancient and powerful civilization in Central America.

According to James, who spoke about the civilization of naacal in 1926, the population of this civilization was 64 million people, who lived for 50 thousand years. According to the literature on the civilization he found in Tibet, James Chur Chawd claims that naacal is the cradle of civilization there, and that these writings illuminate much of Mu’s civilization. In addition, he found these writings: “Mu was a warm country, It has very fertile and fertile plains, and it is decorated with gardens on all sides, in addition to its rich forests ending at forgetfulness

It also has rich and large cities with large population groups on the banks of the rivers, the navigation is distinct from the extraordinary, there was no high mountains, but rather there was no mountains high in this continent from the ground, as the mountains have not risen elsewhere in the world. The existence of the Mu civilization and its people coincided with the third geological era before the formation of great mountains on the ground, lived animals of these ages in the waters of this civilization and forests, and the people of civilization Mu know many ways to delight all kinds of animals there.

  What goal they draw Nazca Lines?

Nazca’s paintings are another obscure subject on the face of the globe. Many geolips left many questions to be answered in the minds of scientists, lines and drawings carved beneath the wall overlooking the Andes and the Nazca desert on the southern shore of Peru.

Nazca’s paintings were observed with the occupation of the Spaniards of South America. In 1939, the first tangible evidence of its existence emerged. The American archaeologist Paul Kosok then made an expedition over the Nazca desert and took photographs of the earthworks there. After this period, a number of diverse scientific research on Nazca’s drawings began. In 1946, the first theory of German mathematician Maria Ritchie (1903-1998) devoted her life to these drawings.

According to Maria Ritchie, the drawings were formed by the light-colored sands coming out from the bottom layer, and the dark sand of the upper layer of the desert was lost, and the earthwork showed the location of the sun, the moon and some stars. These sites were used as a kind of calendar in the agricultural activities of the Nazca people, such as planting, irrigation and harvesting times. Feather’s theory was based on geometric drawings, but did not include assumptions about other engravings such as animal or plant drawings.

Scientists tried 2400 years ago to answer the question of any goal drew the people of Nazca these drawings earth? By providing explanations for existing samples, and insisted on presenting different views. Some experts assume that engineering drawings show flow trends in water tables or irrigation systems, as well as some who believe that these inscriptions for bumblebee birds, lizards and whales are associated with religious symbols.

  The secrets of the pyramids of Giza that no one could reveal its secret

  The pyramids of Egypt are buildings that were usually established as tombs of the pharaohs. The oldest known pyramid is a pyramid built by the architect Imhotep and was built during the third family period. At the time of the construction of the pyramids killed all workers and architects and anyone who knows the secrets of the pyramids in Egypt, is considered the Great Pyramid – A mysterious building – one of the Seven Wonders of the World.

The pyramids of Egypt in all its details are buildings that have been obscured for centuries, how were they created? Who created it? Are a big question marks, humanity remains puzzled and admired by these buildings more and more whenever they reveal more of their characteristics and secrets.

Here are some of the interesting things about the Egyptian pyramids, which do not show explanations that confirm or deny conclusively, but can be expressed by the following points:

– Each pyramid was built of 20 tons of stones, and the nearest distance from which these stones can be obtained is located hundreds of kilometers away. There are various uncertain assumptions about how to obtain these stones used to build the pyramids.

-It is said that the sun enters the room of the person who built the pyramid for him twice a year; once on the day of his birth, and again the time of the end of his reign and descent from the throne, where his tomb is located inside the pyramid, after his death and Tahnitah. – 12 cancer scientists died of radioactive material found in mummies when they were first discovered. -Non-functioning devices inside the pyramids, such as radar, sonar and acoustic devices. – When the contaminated water is left for a few days inside the pyramid it becomes as if it has been purified. – The milk placed in the pyramid remains fresh for a few days, then turns into a thrombosis without spoiling. – Plants grow in the pyramids very quickly more than normal. -The water left in the pyramid turns into a facial lotion after leaving it for five weeks. – The remains of food in the garbage cans rot inside the pyramid without leaving any smell. – Burns, scratches, abrasions and other wounds heal faster inside the pyramid. -There is no information about what is inside some of the Pyramids rooms. Most of the researchers are either lost in the maze inside the pyramid, or the turns lead them to the same place they started from. But no one ever saw what was inside the rooms.

  8000 stone soldiers differ from each other in facial features!

The Terracotta Army was found by a farmer in 1974, and this army, which has been underground for 2,000 years with horses, arrows, bronze swords and horse-drawn vehicles, has created great excitement in the archaeologist. Archaeologists were not able to examine the statues because of their proximity to each other and their fragile mud-brick structure. In fact, the clay figurines were found in 1920, but the villagers who saw them buried them again for fear.

  Terracotta, another name for clay figurines, was discovered by accident in 1974 when a local man dug a well. Not only did the farmers discover clay figurines as they dug underground, but they also discovered horses that were adapted to the size of cavalry, horse-drawn vehicles, war-related vehicles, weapons, and servants.

The construction of clay figurines is associated with the rule of ancient China Qin Shi Huang, because according to an ancient tradition in China before the Qin Dynasty, he was buried with the king when his service, his soldiers, war supplies, his own possessions, and even his wives died. But the Chinese ruler, Qin Shi Huang, did not want to kill his soldiers and serve him at his death. He ordered and equipped soldiers and servants of clay, bronze swords, war trucks and other needs to accompany him to the other world.

Each soldier has different features, ranging in length from 183 to 195 cm. The number of statues found underground today is estimated at 8,000, 130 with 520 horsepower and 150 horses in the exploration area.

    Moai statues, weighing up to 82 tons

One of the largest human statues in the world, called Moai , is 10 meters long and weighs 82 tons. These statues are located on Easter Island , one of the islands of Polynesia in the Indian Ocean. A German sailor was the first who  discovered the island in 1722 and found the temples on Easter Island . A German linguist went there in 1935, 638 kinds of carvings as a result of his research on the island, by categorizing them according to their size. In addition, 887 sculptures were discovered during the 1969-76 study. However, scientists assume that there are more than 1,000 sculptures On the island.

Moai statues are amazing sculptures that affect those who see them with their exaggerated long ears, strong chin, large heads, and armless stems. All the statues are quite similar, punctured by their finely defined eyes, and straight nose. Moai statues require 23,000 people to sculpt, move and place , according to research by experts.

The magnificence of the statues is obvious when we imagine that they are about a thousand sculptures, and although the research has been going on for years, very limited information has been reached around them. This small island in the middle of the ocean continues to maintain its mystery and secrets away from the man of the twenty-first century.

    Why did the mountain climbers die in the Dyatlov corridor?

The case of the Dyatlov Corridor is a mystical death filled with secrets for Russian mountain climbers on the edge of the Urals. Ten mysterious Russian climbers were killed on a mysterious night on February 2, 1959, in an area called “Mountain of Death” .

Returning to the Russian climbers, one of them had fractures in the skull bones, a broken head, although there was no sign of the beating, another was uprooted, others were frozen. The scene was dubbed the “Dyatlov Corridor” in relation to the captain Igorori Alekseevich Dyatlov , and there is a very big mystery behind the death of nine young men.

A survey conducted immediately after the incident showed that the climbers fled the tent torn from the inside in different directions leaving their phones and cameras, without taking anything, including their shoes, and no traces were encountered of any creatures other than the human effects of mountain climbers. What happened ?! Why did these mountain climbers flee without their shoes and in this state of panic on a night where the temperature reaches 30 degrees Celsius below zero?

The body temperature was diagnosed as causing the deaths of Yuri Krivon Sinko, Yuri Poroshenko, Igor Dyatlov , and Zina Kolmogorov Rustem Sulfadin, after the first preview immediately after the accident. These were the first rescue teams to reach their bodies. The mountain climbers were affected by the frost and then began to die one after the other in the darkness of the night, until there was a fracture in the skull of Solbadin, but proved conclusively in the tests that the general condition of the fracture could not be a cause of death. That she received a blow on her head for an unknown reason.

But the most unusual aspect is the fractures in the Brinell skull, which are found in the ribs of Zolatev and Dibonina. Moreover, the eyes, lips, and tongue of Dibonina did not exist, and there were no signs of beating from the outside on the bodies that had fractures in their ribs. It is also interesting that radioactive material was observed on their clothing in the subsequent examination.

    What is happening in Area 51?

The first question people will ask you when you are elected as president is what happens in Area 51? “During Obama’s conversation with actress Shirley McLean.” Area 51 is 153 km from Las Vegas, close to Lake Groom, surrounded by the Nellis Air Force, and the Nevada site. Rachel, on the northern border, is the nearest residential unit.

  It has a total area of ​​76 km. High-ranking military officers have the power to kill anyone, and since no one is allowed to enter the area, no one can approach this secret base for 30 miles either by air or by By sea. Area 51 is one of the most issues of ambiguity in our time, that is hidden what area like a secret, without any explanation, and be entered into a statement even for presidents, all of this raises curiosity about the region and associated with an important question, which is; Do not hide something there ?!

The United States’ retention of space creatures and plane dishes is one of the theories and speculation about Area 51, where it was thought that the nation that first set foot on the moon would be a superpower in the world during the Cold War era. Of the candidate countries to be the superpower, namely the United States of America.

  According to documentary claims, no one has ever set foot on the moon in this period, and this video is only an American game to declare itself the superpower of the Cold War era. Technology at this time was not enough to transfer humans to the moon, and this video does not seem to have been picked up on the moon. According to the allegations, the video of the moon was filmed in Area 51, which is the real reason behind the hideout of the 51 Great Break Zone.

  Stronger than the Hiroshima explosion two thousand times:

Tunguska Explosion No one has been able to uncover the cause of the massive explosion in 1809 in the Tunguska region of Siberia until now. The explosion was so huge that experts agreed that the force could only be issued from more than 2,000 bombs dropped on Hiroshima. The explosion, which destroyed 80 million trees and made them land level in an area of ​​2,150 square kilometers, is one of the most mysterious events of the 20th century.

        A century later, even with the assumption that the explosion of Tunguska happened as a result of a culprit, there are still some confusing questions for the minds. Although the researchers found the samples in 1988, the analyzes were conducted in 2008, and the results emerged in 2013. The explosion of Tunguska remains unclear to this day.

  Hum Taos that did not reveal her secret

  Many people around the world heard sounds like tinnitus, similar to sounds from a diesel engine. Many people say they sometimes hear a buzzing voice, especially those living in America, England and northern Europe. On July 10, 2011, people in the town of Woodland in England said they heard the sound for two months. In 1997, researchers at a conference in a small village called Taos, New Mexico, tried to reach the source of the sound, but their efforts were not successful. The true cause of Hum Taos was not found, and there are still many vague interpretations of its origins and causes.

  The secret of the curse of the island of Oak

Oak Island, nestled in the New Scotland area of ​​Canada, boasts a treasure trove of rare artifacts, scientists said. According to the greatest superstition there is “The Money Pit,” a building made up of large rocks, containing an undiscovered treasure. In 1775 a rumor spread that Canada had a large treasure buried on the island of Oak. Since then, treasure hunters have spent their fortunes and spent their lives searching for them, yet they have not been found in any way after all these efforts on these treasures. One of the biggest reasons why the island of Oak is so secretive, and fortified by treasure hunters, is to immerse water for all areas where drilling is done and the area called the water pit is filled with water at some point when the drilling and exploration efforts reach a certain stage .

The answer to this question is difficult. A study showed that the nearest shoreline of the pit of money is located 500 feet away, so when the water level recedes in the crater, it flows again from the sand loaded with water just as it happens when pressed on water saturated sponge , So the treasure hunters will remain in the pit of money they dig for forever.

    Is the Malaysian plane on the American island of Diego Garcia?

In 2014, a Malaysian Airlines Boeing 777 was lost with 239 passengers and crew, and has been searched internationally since that date , but no debris or impact has been found.

  Several theories about the disappearance of this aircraft began to be discussed, and the claims of the French writer Marc Dugin were the most surprising. According to interviews conducted by Dogin in the Maldives, the plane may be located near Diego Garcia island , one of US military base in Maldives .

  In an article published in the Paris Match magazine, fishermen on the island of Coda, Vado, said they saw a giant plane on March 8, the day the plane disappeared. They said the plane was flying very low and had blue and red lines on it.

Dugin said that two weeks after the plane disappeared, a fire extinguisher was found on the beach of Barra Island, and military officials reportedly seized a tube shortly after it was used in Boeing planes. Dugin says he shares experts who have similar views, saying in his writings that US officials understood the plane had been hijacked. He concludes his claims that the plane was buried with passengers on the ocean floor for use in terrorist acts similar to the events of 11 September. The search for the missing Malaysian aircraft is still under way, and a small thread has not been reached.

  Most Strange Secrets From The Past No One Can Explain

source https://hashtag3r.com/most-strange-secrets-from-the-past-no-one-can-explain/

[maier-files]

New Post has been published on The Maier Files

New Post has been published on http://the.maier-files.com/the-evolution-of-civilizations/

The Evolution of Civilizations

The Evolution of Civilizations expresses two dimensions of its author, Carroll Quigley, that most extraordinary historian, philosopher, and teacher. In the first place, its scope is wide-ranging, covering the whole of man’s activities throughout time. Second, it is analytic, not merely descriptive. It attempts a categorization of man’s activities in sequential fashion so as to provide a causal explanation of the stages of civilization. Quigley coupled enormous capacity for work with a peculiarly “scientific” approach. He believed that it should be possible to examine the data and draw conclusions.

[vc_row][vc_column width=’3/4′]

Quigley chose a life dedicated to rationality. He addressed the problem of explaining change in the world around us, first examined by Heraclitus in ancient Greece. Beneath that constant change, so apparent and itself so real, what is permanent and unchanging? Quigley wanted an explanation that in its very categorization would give meaning to a history which was a record of constant change. Therefore the analysis had to include but not be limited to categories of subject areas of human activity —military, political, economic, social, religious, intellectual. It had to describe change in categories expressed sequentially in time— mixture, gestation, expansion, conflict, universal empire, decay, invasion. It was a most ambitious effort to make history rationally understandable.

In Evolution of Civilizations, Quigley describes the basic ideology of Western civilization as expressed in the statement, “The truth unfolds in time through a communal process.” People must constantly search for the “Truth” by building upon what others have learned. But no knowledge can be assumed to be complete and final. It could be contradicted by new information received tomorrow.

Quigley always retained his belief in the scientific method. Therefore, he saw Hegel and Marx as foolhardy and pretentious, in error, and outside the Western tradition in their analysis of history as an ideologic dialectic culminating in the present or immediate future in a homeostatic condition. Quigley comments upon the constant repetition of conflict and expansion stages in Western history. That reform process owes its possibility to the uniquely Western belief that truth is continually unfolding. Therefore Western civilization is capable of reexamining its direction and its institutions, and changing both as appears necessary. So in Western history, there was a succession of technological breakthroughs in agricultural practice and in commerce.

Outmoded institutions like feudalism and —in the commercial area— municipal mercantilism in the period 1270- 1440, and state mercantilism in the period 1690-1810 were discarded. Similarly, we may also survive the economic crisis described by Quigley as monopoly capitalism in the present post-1900 period. Yet Quigley perceives the possible termination of open-ended Western civilization. With access to an explosive technology that can tear the planet apart, coupled with the failure of Western civilization to establish any viable system of world government, local political authority will tend to become violent and absolutist. As we move into irrational activism, states will seize upon ideologies that justify absolutism. The 2,000-year separation in Western history of state and society would then end. Western people would rejoin those of the rest of the world in merging the two into a single entity, authoritarian and static. The age that we are about to enter would be an ideologic one consistent with the views of Hegel and Marx (a homeostatic condition. That triumph would end the Western experiment and return us to the experience of the rest of the world) namely, that history is a sequence of stages in the rise and fall of absolutist ideologies.

Quigley stated:

“The Evolution of Civilizations is not a history. Rather it is an attempt to establish analytical tools that will assist the understanding of history. Most historians will regard such an effort as unnecessary or even impossible. Those who claim that no analytical tools are needed in order to write history are naive. To them the facts of history are relatively few and are simply arranged. The historian’s task is merely to find these facts; their arrangement will be obvious. But it should require only a moment’s thought to recognize that the facts of the past are infinite, and the possible arrangements of any selection from these facts are equally numerous. Since all the facts cannot be mobilized in any written history because of their great number, there must be some principle on which selection from these facts is based. Such a principle is a tool of historical analysis. Any sophisticated historian should be aware of the principles he uses and should be explicit to his readers about these. If historians are not explicit, at least to themselves, about their principles of selection among the facts of the past and among the many possible arrangements of these facts, all histories will be simply accidental compilations that cannot be justified in any rational way. Historians will continue to write about some of the events of history while neglecting others equally significant or even more significant, and they will form patterns for these facts along lines determined by traditional (and basically accidental) lines or in reflection of old controversies about the patterns of these facts.”

[/vc_column][vc_column width=’1/4′]

[/vc_column][/vc_row]

For those who are fascinated by history a must read book:

https://amzn.to/2AwxPEy

The Secret Money Powers