#spatial summation

[biology-geology-beaches-india]

The Science Research Manuscripts of S. Sunkavally, p410.

[myassignmentservicesca]

Let's Explore the differences between temporal and spatial summation. We will be discussing the mechanism, differences and comparisons of both summations to come to an understanding which is better. If you're medical science student, this blog will be really helpful for you. Visit My Assignment Services read more such blogs written by top Canadian Experts

[transgenderer]

It occurred to me that nocturnal animals might be able to sum photons in space and time to increase sensitivity, akin to pooling pixels to create a larger and more sensitive pixel, or on a camera lengthening the exposure time. This would require neurons at some higher level in the visual system that sum the photoreceptor signals coming from small groups of neighbouring ommatidia (the optical building blocks of compound eyes, each consisting of a lens-pair and an underlying bundle of photoreceptors). Since each ommatidium is responsible for sampling a single pixel of the visual scene, this neural spatial summation would create a large ‘super ommatidium’ that samples a large ‘super pixel’. Similarly, some higher neuron, or circuit of neurons, might be responsible for lengthening the visual exposure time (which is equivalent to the visual integration time).

The downside of such a summation strategy is, however, that fewer larger pixels reduce spatial resolution, and a longer exposure time reduces temporal resolution. In other words, to improve sensitivity one would need to throw away the finer and faster details in a visual scene in order to see the coarser and slower ones a lot better. But this might be better than seeing nothing at all! With this realisation, I started to build a mathematical model to calculate the finest spatial detail that a nocturnal animal, with a given eye design, might see using such a summation strategy as light levels fell (Warrant, 1999).

The results were surprising – spatial and temporal summation should in theory allow nocturnal animals to see at light levels several orders of magnitude dimmer than would have been possible had summation not been used. But could nocturnal animals actually do this? The benefits of summation seemed obvious, and I became convinced that it must be a crucial component of nocturnal visual processing.

I also realised that the same strategies could be used to improve video filmed in very dim light, and quite out of the blue, not long after I had published my model, I was contacted by the car manufacturer Toyota (who had realised the same thing). Toyota were very keen to develop an in-car camera system that could automatically monitor the road ahead at night – using only the existing natural light – and warn the driver of impending obstacles.

I also realised that the same strategies could be used to improve video filmed in very dim light, and quite out of the blue, not long after I had published my model, I was contacted by the car manufacturer Toyota (who had realised the same thing). Toyota were very keen to develop an in-car camera system that could automatically monitor the road ahead at night – using only the existing natural light – and warn the driver of impending obstacles.

they are using bug vision in the cars....

[compneuropapers]

Interesting Papers for Week 38, 2024

Computational Mechanisms Underlying Motivation to Earn Symbolic Reinforcers. Burk, D. C., Taswell, C., Tang, H., & Averbeck, B. B. (2024). Journal of Neuroscience, 44(24), e1873232024.

Rule-based modulation of a sensorimotor transformation across cortical areas. Chang, Y.-T., Finkel, E. A., Xu, D., & O’Connor, D. H. (2024). eLife, 12, e92620.3.

Abstract deliberation by visuomotor neurons in prefrontal cortex. Charlton, J. A., & Goris, R. L. T. (2024). Nature Neuroscience, 27(6), 1167–1175.

Synapse-specific structural plasticity that protects and refines local circuits during LTP and LTD. Harris, K. M., Kuwajima, M., Flores, J. C., & Zito, K. (2024). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 379(1906).

Neural Correlates of Crowding in Macaque Area V4. Kim, Taekjun, & Pasupathy, A. (2024). Journal of Neuroscience, 44(24), e2260232024.

Neurocomputational model of compulsivity: deviating from an uncertain goal-directed system. Kim, Taekwan, Lee, S. W., Lho, S. K., Moon, S.-Y., Kim, M., & Kwon, J. S. (2024). Brain, 147(6), 2230–2244.

The hippocampus dissociates present from past and future goals. Montagrin, A., Croote, D. E., Preti, M. G., Lerman, L., Baxter, M. G., & Schiller, D. (2024). Nature Communications, 15, 4815.

Memory for space and time in 2-year-olds. Mooney, L., Dadra, J., Davinson, K., Tani, N., & Ghetti, S. (2024). Cognitive Development, 70, 101443.

Synergistic information supports modality integration and flexible learning in neural networks solving multiple tasks. Proca, A. M., Rosas, F. E., Luppi, A. I., Bor, D., Crosby, M., & Mediano, P. A. M. (2024). PLOS Computational Biology, 20(6), e1012178.

Two- and three-year-olds prefer mastery-oriented over outcome-oriented help. Raport, A., Ipek, C., Gomez, V., & Moll, H. (2024). Cognitive Development, 70, 101462.

Making precise movements increases confidence in perceptual decisions. Sanchez, R., Courant, A., Desantis, A., & Gajdos, T. (2024). Cognition, 249, 105832.

Equal levels of pre- and postsynaptic potentiation produce unequal outcomes. Savtchenko, L. P., & Rusakov, D. A. (2024). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 379(1906).

Memory Reactivation during Sleep Does Not Act Holistically on Object Memory. Siefert, E. M., Uppuluri, S., Mu, J., Tandoc, M. C., Antony, J. W., & Schapiro, A. C. (2024). Journal of Neuroscience, 44(24), e0022242024.

Spatial summation for motion detection. Solomon, J. A., Nagle, F., & Tyler, C. W. (2024). Vision Research, 221, 108422.

Training enables substantial decoupling of visual attention and saccade preparation. Topfstedt, C. E., Wollenberg, L., & Schenk, T. (2024). Vision Research, 221, 108424.

Development and organization of the retinal orientation selectivity map. Vita, D. J., Orsi, F. S., Stanko, N. G., Clark, N. A., & Tiriac, A. (2024). Nature Communications, 15, 4829.

Unsupervised restoration of a complex learned behavior after large-scale neuronal perturbation. Wang, B., Torok, Z., Duffy, A., Bell, D. G., Wongso, S., Velho, T. A. F., … Lois, C. (2024). Nature Neuroscience, 27(6), 1176–1186.

Feature-selective responses in macaque visual cortex follow eye movements during natural vision. Xiao, W., Sharma, S., Kreiman, G., & Livingstone, M. S. (2024). Nature Neuroscience, 27(6), 1157–1166.

Natural scenes reveal diverse representations of 2D and 3D body pose in the human brain. Zhu, H., Ge, Y., Bratch, A., Yuille, A., Kay, K., & Kersten, D. (2024). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 121(24), e2317707121.

Negation mitigates rather than inverts the neural representations of adjectives. Zuanazzi, A., Ripollés, P., Lin, W. M., Gwilliams, L., King, J.-R., & Poeppel, D. (2024). PLOS Biology, 22(5), e3002622.

[insightscarein]

Recent Developments in Auditory Implants

A Comprehensive Overview

Auditory implant technology has provided the best solution for individuals with severe to profound hearing loss in the field of auditory restoration. During the last couple of years, not only has significant improvement been witnessed in cochlear implant technology but also in that pertaining to the auditory brainstem implants.

This article explores the new developments in the field, focusing on the rapid progress in these two technologies and the wide-ranging applications, the overall influence on patients’ lives.

New Frontier of Hearing Technology

Cochlear implants have long been recognized as the gold standard for severe hearing loss; though their capabilities have reached unparalleled levels, innovation remains keen. Cochlear implants will convert sound waves into electrical signals directly to stimulate the auditory nerve, bypassing the damaged parts of the ear. Some of the latest advances in CI technology are being directed to the following key areas:

Preservation of Residual Hearing

The major development in CI technology is the emphasis on preserving residual hearing at the implantation step. Surgeons can monitor hearing levels throughout the procedure with the use of real-time monitoring techniques and can then intraoperatively make adjustments to better minimize trauma to existing auditory structures, thus offering patients the preservation of at least some natural hearing and further providing increased functionality through the use of the implant for a more richly complex auditory experience.

A Stereo Approach to Hearing

In recent years, there has been a tremendous increase in bilateral cochlear implantation. This approach simply means that the devices are implanted in both ears such that the user will have an even more natural and wholesome perception of hearing. Benefits associated with bilateral implants include:

Better sound localization

Speech understanding in louder settings

Auditory perception in general

Studies have shown that bilateral implants greatly improve binaural summation-one of the key features of spatial awareness and effective communication. This approach in the use of dual implants, for both children and adults, is fast becoming the norm as the evidence behind these continued to grow.

Expanding the Candidate Pool

The candidacy criteria for cochlear implantation are constantly evolving, so ideal candidates must adjust to what is no longer assumed. Latest evidence demonstrates positive results in previously called unsuitable candidate populations for CIs:

– Older adults

– Subjects with single-sided deafness

– Patients with more extensive periods of hearing loss

This expanded candidate pool only serves as growth in the acknowledgement of the plasticity of the human auditory system and therefore its potential to enhance quality of life in a vast population of patients.

Connecting the Dots

Hybrid device research involving cochlear implants in conjunction with hearing aids has significant promises to individuals who possess some to all residual hearing. These treatments aim at informing auditory rehabilitation improvement, keeping in mind that most patients have retained some hearing in some frequency domains but require implant support in others.

New Horizons in Neural Stimulation

While cochlear implants may be dominating the horizon in hearing restoration, very important niches have been carved out by auditory brainstem implants for patients who cannot derive any benefit from CIs due to anatomical or neurological constraints.

Technological Advances

ABI technology remains in development, with more attention given on ways to make the device’s design and performance improve. Some of these include:

– Multi-channel ABIs: This kind of advanced device has better results when it comes to sound detection and phoneme differences.

Read More: https://insightscare.in/recent-developments-in-auditory-implants/

[dreamerwriternstargazer]

Okay the Time of The Daleks was a little hard to follow spatially because it’s an audio right and it was an episode that would have been better visually what with people jumping through the portals and talking through the portals and a larger cast than normal, I wouldn’t say it’s bad imagery wise because the clocks and mirrors as part of this all encompassing Time Machine is very evocative and I can see it very well but just with pacing and all the action and all, it’s hard to follow it’s a bit like trying to understand where everyone is in the edited S8 ep10 (the one where they’re attacking the pyramid or summat) idk it- it’s just hard to visualise but we followed we pulled through

Again one of the more interesting dalek adventures not necessarily because of the daleks themselves but 1. Eight facing them, pre Time War, far less jaded and much more curious, 2. Eight being faced with the possibility of humans time travelling, again that curiosity it’s very interesting it’s a side of the doctor who only start to see vaguely in Twelve as he regains that soft side of himself again (12 and 8 would get on quite well I feel like but 12 wouldn’t admit it)

Also 3. The premise of this episode is perhaps most interesting. Shakespeare being so important and yet he is, he’s the canary in the coal mine and the episode explores that both in the sci fi sense and a… moral sense. The way the side character is obsessed with Shakespeare but to her detriment, she forget what it means, she just wants to keep it for herself and then SHE IS THEN TURNED INTO A DALEK?! LIKE COULD THE WRITING GET ANY CLEARER what with the times she goes on about how Shakespeare is the peak of humanity and it can never be better and then eventually her singlemindedness drives her into joining the daleks and on one hand how could she but on the other haven’t we all seen this happen before? Just a brilliant way to remind the audience that it is easy to become a dalek.

Bonus points for doing it with a Shakespeare fangirl who really said gaslight gatekeep girlboss

[qubero]

Furnishing Design and the Superiority of Nirali BG Kitchen Basins

Within the domain of interior adornment, the fusion of aesthetics and utilitarianism holds preeminent significance. At Qubero, we apprehend the pivotal role played by refined furnishing design in augmenting the ambiance of any spatial setting. Moreover, we acknowledge the indispensable essence of a well-equipped kitchen, where the Nirali BG kitchen basins epitomize excellence and ingenuity. Let us delve into how Qubero seamlessly amalgamates elegant furnishing design with the eminence of Nirali bg kitchen sink to fabricate exquisite living environments.

Elegant Furnishing Design: Synthesis of Form and Utility

Sleek furniture Design transcends mere visual allure; it embodies a philosophy that embraces unadorned contours, minimalist outlines, and pioneering materials to engender furniture pieces that are both aesthetically pleasing and functional. At Qubero, we specialize in curating elegant furnishing designs that are custom-tailored to the contemporary lifestyle.

From simplistic dining tables and seating arrangements to sophisticated entertainment hubs and storage solutions, every artifact in the Qubero assortment is meticulously crafted to optimize spatial utilization and augment the aesthetic appeal of any given area. Our cadre of proficient designers comprehends the significance of striking a harmonious equilibrium between form and utility, ensuring that each creation not only exudes visual magnificence but also serves its designated purpose with utmost efficacy.

The Eminence of Nirali BG Kitchen Basins

At the nucleus of every household lies the culinary nucleus, where gastronomic enchantment unfolds and cherished reminiscences are forged. The Nirali BG kitchen basin stands as a testament to the primacy of quality and innovation within this indispensable sphere. Forged from top-tier stainless steel and incorporating avant-garde design elements, Nirali BG kitchen basins are meticulously fashioned to cater to the exigencies of contemporary living.

Featuring a spectrum of options ranging from solitary bowl basins to dual-basin configurations complete with integrated draining platforms, Nirali BG kitchen basins offer unparalleled versatility and functionality. Whether engaged in dishwashing endeavors, culinary preparations, or post-meal clean-up endeavors, Nirali BG basins transform each task into a seamless endeavor.

Seamless Integration: Intersection of Form and Utility

At Qubero, we espouse the conviction that every constituent of a living milieu should coalesce harmoniously, including the alignment of furnishing design with kitchen amenities such as the Nirali BG basin. Our team of artisans collaborates closely with homeowners to orchestrate seamless transitions between distinct sectors of the domicile, ensuring that each artifact harmonizes seamlessly with its counterparts.

Whether it entails a sophisticated dining ensemble that seamlessly melds with a contemporary kitchen or a minimalist entertainment nucleus that serves as the focal nexus of a communal area, Qubero's furnishing designs are meticulously calibrated to enhance the overall aesthetic of any locale while integrating seamlessly with indispensable fixtures such as the Nirali BG kitchen basin.

Embark on the Qubero Journey

In summation, Qubero beckons as the quintessential destination for elegant furnishing design and the eminence of Nirali BG kitchen basins. With our steadfast dedication to quality, innovation, and seamless integration, we proffer homeowners the opportunity to fashion resplendent living quarters that amalgamate beauty with functionality seamlessly. Embrace the Qubero experience today and elevate the ambiance of your abode with our elegant furnishing creations and premium kitchen amenities.

[luna-xial]

Best MIDI Keyboards

The discourse surrounding the indispensability of MIDI keyboards in the panorama of music production pivots around pivotal constructs of versatility, adaptability, and tactile engagement. A critical examination of these elements delineates the MIDI keyboard not as a mere accessory but as a fundamental instrument critical for navigating the complex architecture of contemporary music creation.

Versatility is the first beacon illuminating the MIDI keyboard's critical role. In an era where genre fusion and sound innovation are at the forefront of musical evolution, the MIDI keyboard stands as a maestro of metamorphosis. Capable of emulating an encyclopedic array of instruments—from the resonant depths of a cello to the celestial chime of a xylophone—it demolishes the financial and spatial barriers that once constricted producers’ creative realms. This orchestral omnipotence provided by a singular device equips music producers with a sonic Swiss army knife, essential for the eclectic demands of modern music composition.

Adaptability, the MIDI keyboard’s second virtue, offers an intuitive bridge between the analog sensations of musical performance and the digital manipulation of sound. This chameleon-like adaptability ensures that it remains a relevant and indispensable tool amidst the rapidly evolving technology landscape of music production. The ability to assign MIDI controls and map them to specific functions within Digital Audio Workstations (DAWs) transforms the keyboard into an extension of the producer’s intent, allowing for a more fluid and immersive creation process.

Finally, the element of tactile engagement underscores the MIDI keyboard’s criticality. The physical interaction with keys and controls engages muscle memory and instinct in the music creation process, nurturing a more intimate and intuitive relationship with the digital composition. This tactility is paramount in preserving the human essence within music, bridging the gap between digital precision and emotional expression, ensuring that productions resonate with the listener on a deeper level.

In summation, the MIDI keyboard’s virtues of versatility, adaptability, and tactile engagement render it an indispensable instrument in the music production milieu. It is a linchpin in the modern producer’s toolkit, integral for crafting the nuanced, complex, and resonant compositions that define the contemporary musical landscape.

SoundShockAudio https://soundshockaudio.com/

[ripplefmslogistics]

Logistical Symphony: Navigating Precision with Warehouse Inventory Tracking and Fleet Management Systems

In the dynamic sphere of contemporary corporate ventures, the harmonious synchronization of logistical intricacies and the adept administration of assets serves as pivotal for triumph. Two crucial facets contributing to this orchestration are Warehouse Inventory Tracking and Fleet Management Systems. Let's plunge into the profundity of these technologies and their implications on the logistics sector.

Warehouse Inventory Tracking: Precision Navigation in Stock Oversight

Warehouse Inventory Tracking emerges as a revolutionary influence in the logistics domain, employing avant-garde technologies for vigilant monitoring and governance of inventory levels within a storage facility. This approach ensures immediate discernment of stock flux, curbing inaccuracies, and optimizing holistic operational efficacy.

The execution of a robust Warehouse Inventory Tracking system assumes paramount significance for enterprises aspiring to refine precision in inventory assessments, alleviate instances of stock deficits or surpluses, and ultimately elevate levels of customer satisfaction. This technological paradigm equips warehouse overseers with the necessary instruments for judicious decision-making regarding inventory restocking, order fulfillment, and spatial utilization.

Logistics Management Software: Conducting Harmonious Operations Logistics Management Software acts in tandem with Warehouse Inventory Tracking, presenting a comprehensive resolution for orchestrating the entirety of the supply chain. This software simplifies the transit of commodities from the producer to the storage facility and eventually to the end-user, ensuring a seamlessly synchronized and efficient progression.

Empowered by Logistics Management Software, enterprises attain all-encompassing dominion over transport logistics, fine-tuning routes, and truncating transit durations. The software facilitates real-time monitoring of consignments, fostering enhanced decision-making and ameliorated communication with clientele. This echelon of transparency not only amplifies operational efficiency but also forges a foundation of trust with customers.

Fleet Management Systems: Paving Paths to Operational Efficiency Fleet Management Systems assume a pivotal role in optimizing the utilization of vehicular assets in logistical operations. Whether overseeing a diminutive or expansive fleet, these systems provide instantaneous tracking, schedule maintenance, and proffer analytical insights into vehicular performance. This ensures each vehicle operates at its zenith efficiency, thereby contributing to cost abatement and elevating the comprehensive management of the fleet.

Through the amalgamation of Fleet Management Systems with Warehouse Inventory Tracking and Logistics Management Software, enterprises architect a comprehensive paradigm for logistics. This integration empowers organizations to react expeditiously to shifting demands, curtail fuel expenditures, and amplify the holistic sustainability of their operations.

The Synergy: Warehouse Inventory Tracking, Logistics Management, and Fleet Management

The authentic potency of these technologies comes to fruition when they collaboratively operate. Warehouse Inventory Tracking, Logistics Management Software, and Fleet Management Systems forge a harmonized ecosystem, nurturing a streamlined and efficient supply chain.

This amalgamated approach mitigates redundancies, truncates errors, and augments the overarching agility of the logistical process. For enterprises aspiring to sustain competitiveness in the contemporary swift-paced market, the adoption of these technologies transcends being a mere alternative; it metamorphoses into a strategic imperative.

In summation, the amalgam of Warehouse Tracking System, Logistics Management Software, and Fleet Management Systems lays the bedrock for a responsive and efficient logistical framework. The embracement of these technologies is not merely a stride toward operational excellence but a pivotal catalyst for triumph in the perpetually evolving realm of logistics.

[venetianwindow]

20230225. 【🎭】 // Chiaroscuro: Denys Lasdun’s National Theatre.

Beloved Southbank icon and Lasdun’s magnum opus. This is his finest work. The NT is the most magnificent summation of his favourite tropes and motifs, all synthesised into one great building of austerity and gracefulness — quintessential qualities of the architect imbued into the fabric of his architecture to immense success. A noble building conceived by a noble human being.

Throughout his illustrious career, one of Lasdun’s most enduring architectural loves was Hawksmoor. That influence is most discernible in the NT; at the height of his design capabilities, Lasdun responded to that shadowy genius of the English Baroque with his own profound sensibilities. I have no doubt that if Hawksmoor had lived 300 years later, the respect would have been mutual. Here is an intellectual dialogue across three centuries between one inventive man and another.

Inside the NT, space unfolds and expands endlessly. The bulky concrete columns rise like towering trees of deep woods — perhaps a distant trace of the Gothic — while the strata terraces become labyrinthine levels joined by stairways punctured by expository interstices. One feels infinitesimally small amidst the monolithic world of rough grey concrete, made brilliantly exciting by the beautiful natural finish left by timber formwork. The spatial complexity renders the public realm another stage, on which unfolds the minutiae drama of human life. There is no better place for people watching, or else spending a peaceful afternoon, immersed in the oxymoronic solitude amongst others made possible by the building.

As night falls, the theatrics of architecture multiply tenfold; discordant shadows elongate and swell across the landscape in sensational gestures. The impressive geometries are also transformed as lights flicker on between the structural lattices. Concrete is a spectacular backdrop for dancing lights, manmade or natural.

But look now, theatregoer, the curtains are falling — time to leave the entrancing realm of elegant Brutalism and retire to the rhythm of society. Tomorrow life carries on as it always has.

☞ studygram

[perfectlytinyworkspace]

Tremblay et al.: Figures and Boxes

Figure 1: Diversity, Classification, and Properties of Neocortical GABAergic INs

Neocortical GABAergic IN: GABA-releasing (likely inhibitory) interneuron (connecting between perception/motor output?) within the fetal brain

all of these express one of [PV parvalbumin (relation to general albumin carrier in the blood?), somatostatin (insulin/glucagon balance regulator), 5HT3a serotonin receptor] and can thus be categorized by those markers

further classification of different neocortical GABA-ergic INs can be obtained via morphology, targeting biases, other biomarkers, and electrophysiological/synaptic properties

tree classification: 1 of 3 markers » morphology » targeting bias » anatomy » biophysical properties of firing (firing patterns, spiking, refractory) » synaptic properties » addt'l markers

Figure 2: Laminar Distribution of IN Groups

L1, 2, 3, 4, 5a, 5b, and 6 are all layers in the neocortex

distribution of the three major GABA-ergic IN types as distinguished by PV, Sst, and 5HT3a marker expression (5HT3a separated into VIP and non-VIP expressing cells) varies with neocortical layer

significance: varying compositional make-up of L layers signifies likely variance in roles they play in fetal brain function + later development of cognition

Box 1: PV FS Basket Cells Are Specialized for Speed, Efficiency, and Temporal Precision

physical properties of PV FS cells suit them for rapid, precise firing

machinery for fast EPSPs: AMPA receptors w/ GluR1 subunits only, low membrane resistance, very active dendrites

machinery for brief and highly repetitive APs: sub-threshold Kv1 channels that allow for quick repolarization, "Na+ channels with slower inactivation and faster recovery"

these components are all concentrated at the appropriate areas of the neuron to reach high efficacy

Figure 3: Cell-Specific Connectivity and Subcellular Domains Targeted by IN Subtypes

Sst martinotti cells synapse near the soma of the L2/3 cell

nonVIP 5HT3aR NGFCs synapse near the branches of the L2/3 dendrite/axon

in L5/6 pyramidal cells, NGFC inputs are broken up by different layers (?)

Figure 4: Circuit Motifs Involving INs

different functions of interneurons in modulating synaptic signaling are dependent on placement of IN and source of excitatory input

feedforward inhibition: distal excitation » IN and pyramidal cell; IN then also inhibits pyramidal cell to modulate the effects of the distal excitation

feedback inhibition: PC excitation » IN inhibits the original PC source of excitation to gradually modulate its signal » IN also inhibits same-layer proximal PCs to unify regional signaling pattern

disinhibition: IN » IN » PC so that the end result is the reduction of inhibition on the pyramidal cell's excitatory activity

Figure 5: Thalamocortical FFI by PV Neurons Imposes Coincidence Detection

FFI via PV neurons allows for temporal summation window in certain spaces/moments of time

this is achieved by increasing inhibition at all other time periods; now "near-synchornous inputs are required for efficient summation of EPSPs and to drive AP firing on the PC"

[I think that] NGFCs weaken the PV inhibition of PCs, allowing for a wider window of temporal summation and lateral signaling recruitment of other PCs?

FFI prevents saturation via PV cell recruitment; NGFC signaling weakens this mechanism. Thus, depending on how much FFI is needed in certain regions, the NGFC vs. PV cell population concentration ratios will vary

Figure 6: FBI and Differential Effect of PV and Sst IN-Mediated Inhibition

difference between PV and Sst IN inhibition: PVs show decreased response to repeated external inputs due to anatomical and synaptic features from Box 1; Ssts show increased response due to "opposing" or somewhat "antithetical" physical properties to PVs

thus PVs function to synchronize activity laterally across two or more pyramidal cells, i.e., spatial summation; Ssts function to amplify all inputs to a single PC, i.e., temporal summation

PVs have high permeability (low resistance) which means that EPSPs generated diffuse and disperse easily, so highly repetitive inputs do not build up and the cell is unable to undergo temporal summation; on the other hand, insensitivity to temporal summation means that the cell can 'detect' synchronized spatial summation » it's not just a LACK of temporal summation, it's that a "large amount of input at one time" must be present, which means it's uniquely suited to spatial summation

Ssts have low permeability (high resistance) which means they can essentially STORE charge and thus undergo temporal summation with highly repetitive inputs from external sources

Figure 7: Vip IN-Mediated Disinhibition

Vip INs selectively inhibit Sst INs that are targeting a single pyramidal cell, so that when Vips fire, PCs are disinhibited

area-wide excitability is increased broadly as Vips are recruited; or, if a single Vip is activated, so too are just a few selected PCs disinhibited

[meteorology012]

Friday’s workshop and inspirations

Go back to the interview➡️tornado

Through the first personal interview with Dustin Knight, I think we might try to focus on this point of Dustin Knight and have a more in-depth discussion with him: Dustin's first exposure to tornadoes from his childhood has led to his fear of unknown meteorology. But as he explored the subject, his mood changed step by step, and eventually, he fell in love with meteorology and was willing to spend the rest of his life pursuing it. 

I think that individual cognitive transformation can be combined with our simulations and experiments. People who are exposed to tornadoes for the first time will experience some negative and fearful emotions, which are caused by not knowing about them or being bound by traditional ideas, and some of the disasters they cause. But they ignore the beauty and wonder behind nature. Tornadoes can be a recipe for disaster, but if, like Dustin, you were willing to spend days or even weeks driving long distances to track them and understand them, tornadoes might become less of a fear and more of a way of life and state.

This experience is so similar to an artist（Daniel Arsham）.A teenager in Miami saw his house fall apart in a hurricane and almost died in the hurricane. Earlier, he was also diagnosed as a patient with color recognition disorder (color blindness). The limitations and difficulties of life seem to have unfolded prematurely in front of the 12-year-old boy. However, he has broken these limitations with his talent and hard work. He is Daniel Arsham.

We can find out more about Dustin's second interview: Do you think the weather can change people's mood so much? If one day a tornado or some such beautiful and mysterious natural scene disappeared from the earth, would it affect your life?

On Friday’s workshop, we started from this point and built a research device. We narrowed the theme down to the relationship between weather and mood by adding the spiral shape of a tornado to give people a kind of thinking. Based on: "Do you think the weather can change your mood? Are you afraid of tornadoes?" Therefore, the interviewers can answer questions directly on the hanging paper. We hope to get more people's first impressions of the tornado through this device. ( Thomas Marriott really love our idea and how it was exhibited).

After the workshop, we found some examples of artists. Artist Sarah Sze, who is also a fan of weather observation, hung up her photos of 1,000 clouds in the airport terminal. The spherical choice is her interpretation of countless concepts of time and space. She skillfully combines two-dimensional images, spatial devices, and the central idea of expression in this form. I think maybe we can borrow that idea. She named it "Shorter than the Day." The name is a reference to the poem Because I could not stop for Death. The poem suggests that the summation of life is also a consolation, not so terrible as it is always supposed to be. Thus elevating death to a lovable and honourable image. And I think that's also very relevant to the idea of what we're trying to say about tornadoes. So put this down for a little bit of reference:

Research device

I think maybe we should put ourselves as a member of the investigation, from the initial lack of understanding, through a series of investigations and experiments, to the current knowledge of meteorology and the degree of inner love of meteorology in it, rather than just as onlookers and narrating the experience of other artists through the final work. 

The small experiment we did might be able to quote the part about wind, so as to fit Dustin's understanding of tornadoes. In addition, we also recorded the inner narration of these experiments ourselves or kept a diary (I have been writing diaries from 1.2project to today), so as to enrich the whole process.

[jhavelikes]

Neurons are the computational elements that compose the brain and their fundamental principles of activity are known for decades. According to the long-lasting computational scheme, each neuron sums the incoming electrical signals via its dendrites and when the membrane potential reaches a certain threshold the neuron typically generates a spike to its axon. Here we present three types of experiments, using neuronal cultures, indicating that each neuron functions as a collection of independent threshold units. The neuron is anisotropically activated following the origin of the arriving signals to the membrane, via its dendritic trees. The first type of experiments demonstrates that a single neuron’s spike waveform typically varies as a function of the stimulation location. The second type reveals that spatial summation is absent for extracellular stimulations from different directions. The third type indicates that spatial summation and subtraction are not achieved when combining intra- and extra- cellular stimulations, as well as for nonlocal time interference, where the precise timings of the stimulations are irrelevant. Results call to re-examine neuronal functionalities beyond the traditional framework, and the advanced computational capabilities and dynamical properties of such complex systems.

New Types of Experiments Reveal that a Neuron Functions as Multiple Independent Threshold Units | Scientific Reports

[compneuropapers]

Interesting Papers for Week 42, 2019

Neural Variability Is Quenched by Attention. Arazi, A., Yeshurun, Y., & Dinstein, I. (2019). Journal of Neuroscience, 39(30), 5975–5985.

Working Memory Load-related Theta Power Decreases in Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Predict Individual Differences in Performance. Brzezicka, A., Kamiński, J., Reed, C. M., Chung, J. M., Mamelak, A. N., & Rutishauser, U. (2019). Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 31(9), 1290–1307.

The Role of Hierarchical Dynamical Functions in Coding for Episodic Memory and Cognition. Dannenberg, H., Alexander, A. S., Robinson, J. C., & Hasselmo, M. E. (2019). Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 31(9), 1271–1289.

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[austudybio-blog]

Monday is such a long day and on top of that I got drenched in rain.😭😭😭

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Talking about long, Axons.

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FEW KEY TERMS/POINTS TO REMEMBER💭:

~Nernst equation.

~GHK equation.

~Na+ moves in - depolarization

~K+ moves out - repolarization

~Graded potentials

~Action potentials

~Spatial summation

~Temporal summation

~IPSP

~EPSP

~Ca2+ and synaptic transmission

~Cell Soma

~Axon hillock

~Axon

~PNS has 2 types of glial cells while CNS has 4 (try remember the names of these and their functions)

~CNS has 2 main components while PNS has 2 main divisions which then branch out further (sympathetic neurons in spinal cord (CNS) interact with SNS of ANS of PNS)

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P.s. do I use too many abbreviations?🤔

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STUDY TIP🤓:

~Make mindmaps which shortly summarise each topic chapter to it's key points. You need to really understand the subject to be able to do this and it makes great tools for quick revision.😊