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viswatech · 3 years ago

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Memory

In computers, memory is the most essential component of the normal functioning of any system. The computer system categorizes the memory for different purposes and uses. In this section, we have discussed the classification of memory in detail. Also, we will discuss types of memory, features of memory, RAM, ROM, SRAM, DRAM, and its advantages and disadvantages.

What is computer memory?

Computer memory

is any physical device, used to store data, information or instruction temporarily or permanently. It is the collection of storage units that stores binary information in the form of bits. The memory block is split into a small number of components, called cells. Each cell has a unique address to store the data in memory, ranging from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the size of computer memory is 64k words, the memory units have 64 * 1024 = 65536 locations or cells. The address of the memory's cells varies from 0 to 65535.

Why do we need a computer memory?

In the computer system, we need computer memory to store various types of data like text, images, video, audio, documents, etc. We can retrieve it when the data is required. For example, when we write and execute any computer program, it is initially stored in primary memory. If the processor does not need particular items for a longer time, the program or data is automatically saved into the permanent or secondary memory. Then the data is called from secondary memory to main memory and performs the execution of codes.

Features of Memory

Following are the different features of the memory system that includes:

1. Location: It represents the internal or external location of the memory in a computer. The internal memory is inbuilt in computer memory. It is also known as primary memory. the example of primary memory are registers, cache and main memory. Whereas, external memory is the separate storage device from the computer, such as disk, tape, USB pen drive.

2. Capacity: It is the most important feature of computer memory. Storage capacity can vary in external and internal memory. External devices' storage capacity is measured in terms of bytes, whereas the internal memory is measured with bytes or words. The storage word length can vary in bits, such as 8, 16 or 32 bits.

3. Access Methods: Memory can be accessed through four modes of memory.

DMA: As the name specifies, Direct Memory Address (DMA) is a method that allows input/output (I/O) devices to access or retrieve data directly or from the main memory.

Sequential Access Method: The sequential access method is used in a data storage device to read stored data sequentially from the computer memory. Whereas, the data received from random access memory (RAM) can be in any order.

Random Access Method: It is a method used to randomly access data from memory. This method is the opposite of SAM. For example, to go from A to Z in random access, we can directly jump to any specified location. In the Sequential method, we have to follow all intervening from A to Z to reach at the particular memory location.

Associative Access Method: It is a special type of memory that optimizes search performance through defined data to directly access the stored information based on a memory address.

4. Unit of transfer: As the name suggests, a unit of transfer measures the transfer rate of bits that can be read or write in or out of the memory devices. The transfer rate of data can be different in external and internal memory.

Internal memory: The transfer rate of bits is mostly equal to the word size.

External memory: The transfer rate of bit or unit is not equal to the word length. It is always greater than a word or may be referred to as blocks.

5. Performance: The performance of memory is majorly divided into three parts.

Access Time: In random access memory, it represents the total time taken by memory devices to perform a read or write operation that an address is sent to memory.

Memory Cycle Time: Total time required to access memory block and additional required time before starting second access.

Transfer rate: It describes the transfer rate of data used to transmit memory to or from an external or internal memory device. Bit transfer can be different for different external and internal devices.

6. Physical types: It defines the physical type of memory used in a computer such as magnetic, semiconductor, magneto-optical and optical.

7. Organization: It defines the physical structure of the bits used in memory.

8. Physical characteristics: It specifies the physical behavior of the memory like volatile, non-volatile or non-erasable memory. Volatile memory is known as RAM, which requires power to retain stored information, and if any power loss has occurred, stored data will be lost. Non-volatile memory is a permanent storage memory that is used to obtain any stored information, even when the power is off. Non-erasable memory is a type of memory that cannot be erased after the manufactured like ROM because at the time of manufactured ROM are programmed.

Classification of Memory

Primary or Main Memory

Primary memory is also known as the computer system's main memory that communicates directly within the CPU

, Auxiliary memory and the Cache memory. Main memory is used to kept programs or data when the processor is active to use them. When a program or data is activated to execute, the processor first loads instructions or programs from secondary memory into main memory, and then the processor starts execution. Accessing or executing of data from primary memory is faster because it has a cache or register memory that provides faster response, and it is located closer to the CPU

. The primary memory is volatile, which means the data in memory can be lost if it is not saved when a power failure occurs. It is costlier than secondary memory, and the main memory capacity is limited as compared to secondary memory.

The primary memory is further divided into two parts:

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

2. ROM (Read Only Memory)

Random Access Memory (RAM)

is one of the faster types of main memory accessed directly by the CPU. It is the hardware in a computer device to temporarily store data, programs or program results. It is used to read/write data in memory until the machine is working. It is volatile, which means if a power failure occurs or the computer is turned off, the information stored in RAM

will be lost. All data stored in computer memory can be read or accessed randomly at any time.

There are two types of RAM:

SRAM

DRAM

DRAM: DRAM (Dynamic Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM that is used for the dynamic storage of data in RAM. In DRAM, each cell carries one-bit information. The cell is made up of two parts: a capacitor and a transistor. The size of the capacitor and the transistor is so small, requiring millions of them to store on a single chip. Hence, a DRAM chip can hold more data than an SRAM chip of the same size. However, the capacitor needs to be continuously refreshed to retain information because DRAM is volatile. If the power is switched off, the data store in memory is lost.

Characteristics of DRAM

1. It requires continuously refreshed to retain the data.

2. It is slower than SRAM

3. It holds a large amount of data

4. It is the combination of capacitor and transistor

5. It is less expensive as compared to SRAM

6. Less power consumption

SRAM: SRMA (Static Random-Access Memory) is a type of RAM used to store static data in the memory. It means to store data in SRAM remains active as long as the computer system has a power supply. However, data is lost in SRAM when power failures have occurred.

Characteristics of Static Ram

1. It does not require to refresh.

2. It is faster than DRAM

3. It is expensive.

4. High power consumption

5. Longer life

6. Large size

7. Uses as a cache memory

Advantages of RAM

It is a faster type of memory in a computer.

It requires less power to operate.

Program loads much faster

More RAM increases the performance of a system and can multitask.

Perform read and write operations.

The processor can read information faster than a hard disc, floppy, USB, etc.

Disadvantages of RAM

Less RAM reduces the speed and performance of a computer.

Due to volatile, it requires electricity to preserve the data.

It is expensive than ROM

It is unreliable as compared to ROM

The Size of RAM is limited.

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

ROM

is a memory device or storage medium that is used to permanently store information inside a chip. It is a read-only memory that can only read stored information, data or programs, but we cannot write or modify anything. A ROM contains some important instructions or program data that are required to start or boot a computer. It is a non-volatile memory; it means that the stored information cannot be lost even when the power is turned off or the system is shut down.

Types of ROM

There are five types of Read Only Memory:

1. MROM (Masked Read Only Memory):

MROM is the oldest type of read-only memory whose program or data is pre-configured by the integrated circuit manufacture at the time of manufacturing. Therefore, a program or instruction stored within the MROM chip cannot be changed by the user.

2. PROM(ProgrammableReadOnlyMemory):

It is a type of digital read-only memory, in which the user can write any type of information or program only once. It means it is the empty PROM chip in which the user can write the desired content or program only once using the special PROM programmer or PROM burner device; after that, the data or instruction cannot be changed or erased.

3. EPROM(ErasableandProgrammableReadOnlyMemory):

It is the type of read only memory in which stored data can be erased and re-programmed only once in the EPROM memory. It is a non-volatile memory chip that holds data when there is no power supply and can also store data for a minimum of 10 to 20 years. In EPROM, if we want to erase any stored data and re-programmed it, first, we need to pass the ultraviolet light for 40 minutes to erase the data; after that, the data is re-created in EPROM.

4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): The EEROM is an electrically erasable and programmable read only memory used to erase stored data using a high voltage electrical charge and re-programmed it. It is also a non-volatile memory whose data cannot be erased or lost; even the power is turned off. In EEPROM, the stored data can be erased and reprogrammed up to 10 thousand times, and the data erase one byte at a time.

5. Flash ROM: Flash memory is a non-volatile storage memory chip that can be written or programmed in small units called Block or Sector. Flash Memory is an EEPROM form of computer memory, and the contents or data cannot be lost when the power source is turned off. It is also used to transfer data between the computer and digital devices.

Advantages of ROM

1. It is a non-volatile memory in which stored information can be lost even power is turned off.

2. It is static, so it does not require refreshing the content every time.

3. Data can be stored permanently.

4. It is easy to test and store large data as compared to RAM.

5. These cannot be changed accidently

6. It is cheaper than RAM.

7. It is simple and reliable as compared to RAM.

8. It helps to start the computer and loads the OS.

Disadvantages of ROM

1. Store data cannot be updated or modify except to read the existing data.

2. It is a slower memory than RAM to access the stored data.

3. It takes around 40 minutes to destroy the existing data using the high charge of ultraviolet light.

Secondary Memory

Secondary memory

is a permanent storage space to hold a large amount of data. Secondary memory is also known as external memory that representing the various storage media (hard drives, USB, CDs, flash drives and DVDs) on which the computer data and program can be saved on a long term basis. However, it is cheaper and slower than the main memory. Unlike primary memory, secondary memory cannot be accessed directly by the CPU. Instead of that, secondary memory data is first loaded into the RAM (Random Access Memory) and then sent to the processor to read and update the data. Secondary memory devices also include magnetic disks like hard disk and floppy disks, an optical disk such as CDs and CDROMs, and magnetic tapes.

Features of Secondary Memory

Its speed is slower than the primary/ main memory.

Store data cannot be lost due to non-volatile nature.

It can store large collections of different types, such as audio, video, pictures, text, software, etc.

All the stored data in a secondary memory cannot be lost because it is a permanent storage area; even the power is turned off.

It has various optical and magnetic memories to store data.

Types of Secondary Memory

The following are the types of secondary memory devices:

Hard Disk

A hard disk is a computer's permanent storage device. It is a non-volatile disk that permanently stores data, programs, and files, and cannot lose store data when the computer's power source is switched off. Typically, it is located internally on computer's motherboard that stores and retrieves data using one or more rigid fast rotating disk platters inside an air-sealed casing. It is a large storage device, found on every computer or laptop for permanently storing installed software, music, text documentation, videos, operating system, and data until the user did not delete.

Floppy Disk

A floppy disk is a secondary storage system that consisting of thin, flexible magnetic coating disks for holding electronic data such as computer files. It is also known as Floppy Diskette that comes in three sizes like 8 inches, 5.5 inches and 3.5 inches. The stored data of a floppy disk can be accessed through the floppy disk drive. Furthermore, it is the only way through a new program installed on a computer or backup of the information. However, it is the oldest type of portable storage device, which can store data up to 1.44 MB. Since most programs were larger, that required multiple floppy diskettes to store large amounts of data. Therefore, it is not used due to very low memory storage.

CD (Compact Disc)

A CD

is an optical disk storage device, stands for Compact Disc. It is a storage device used to store various data types like audio, videos, files, OS, Back-Up file, and any other information useful to a computer. The CD has a width of 1.2 mm and 12 cm in height, which can store approximately 783 MB of data size. It uses laser light to read and write data from the CDs.

Types of CDs

1. CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read Only Memory): It is mainly used for bulk size mass like audio CDs, software and computer games at the time of manufacture. Users can only read data, text, music, videos from the disc, but they cannot modify or burnt it.

2. CD-R (Compact Disc Recordable): The type of Compact Disc used to write once by the user; after that, it cannot be modified or erased.

3. CD-RW (Compact Disc Rewritable): It is a rewritable CD disc, often used to write or delete the stored data.

DVD Drive/Disc

DVD is an optical disc storage device, stands for Digital Video Display or Digital Versatile Disc. It has the same size as a CD but can store a larger amount of data than a compact disc. It was developed in 1995 by Sony, Panasonic, Toshiba and Philips four electronics companies. DVD drives are divided into three types, such as DVD ROM (Read Only Memory), DVD R (Recordable) and DVD RW (Rewritable or Erasable). It can store multiple data formats like audio, videos, images, software, operating system, etc. The storing capacity of data in DVD is 4.7 GB to 17 GB.

Blu Ray Disc (BD)

Blu Ray is an Optical disc storage device used to store a large amount of data or high definition of video recording and playing other media files. It uses laser technology to read the stored data of the Blu-ray Disk. It can store more data at a greater density as compared to CD/ DVD. For example, compact discs allow us to store 700 MB of data, and in DVDs, it provides up to 8 GB of storage capacity, while Blu-ray Discs provide 28 GB of space to store data.

Pen Drive

A pen drive is a portable device used to permanently store data and is also known as a USB flash drive. It is commonly used to store and transfer the data connected to a computer using a USB port. It does not have any moveable part to store the data; it uses an integrated circuit chip that stores the data. It allows the users to store and transfer data like audio, videos, images, etc. from one computer to any USB pen drive. The storing capacity of pen drives from 64 MB to 128 GB or more.

Cache Memory

It is a small-sized chip-based computer memory that lies between the CPU and the main memory. It is a faster, high performance and temporary memory to enhance the performance of the CPU. It stores all the data and instructions that are often used by computer CPUs. It also reduces the access time of data from the main memory. It is faster than the main memory, and sometimes, it is also called CPU memory because it is very close to the CPU chip. The following are the levels of cache memory.

1. L1 Cache: The L1 cache is also known as the onboard, internal, or primary cache. It is built with the help of the CPU. Its speed is very high, and the size of the L1 cache varies from 8 KB to 128 KB.

2. L2 Cache: It is also known as external or secondary cache, which requires fast access time to store temporary data. It is built into a separate chip in a motherboard, not built into the CPU like the L1 level. The size of the L2 cache may be 128 KB to 1 MB.

3. L3 Cache: L3 cache levels are generally used with high performance and capacity of the computer. It is built into a motherboard. Its speed is very slow, and the maximum size up to 8 MB.

Advantages of Cache Memory

1. Cache memory is the faster memory as compared to the main memory.

2. It stores all data and instructions that are repeatedly used by the CPU for improving the performance of a computer.

3. The access time of data is less than the main memory.

Disadvantage of Cache Memory

1. It is very costly as compared to the Main memory and the Secondary memory.

2. It has limited storage capacity.

The register memory is a temporary storage area for storing and transferring the data and the instructions to a computer. It is the smallest and fastest memory of a computer. It is a part of computer memory located in the CPU as the form of registers. The register memory is 16, 32 and 64 bits in size. It temporarily stores data instructions and the address of the memory that is repeatedly used to provide faster response to the CPU.

#expalin memory #what is memory #benifits of memory #advantages of memory #types of memory #RAM #ROM #DVD #CD #register memory #cache memory #primary memory #secondry memory

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donnerpartyofone · 6 years ago

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21 Questions

Tagged by @getoutofmyhouse who had oddly similar answers to mine

Nickname: only the one I use here, that I gave myself--Claire Donner, which has to do with my famous love of cannibalism. Claire is my real first name, though.

Zodiac: I am so very cuspy. I was born at about a quarter to midnight on April 20, so I tend to relate to, and feel insulted by, the suppositions about Aries and Taurus equally. I’m one of those jerks who will tell you astrology is a bunch of hoo ha...and then drone on with my Many Esoteric Ideas about it, so I’ll just stop myself right here.

Height: 5’ nuthin is what I prefer to say...because saying I’m 5 and 3/4′ sounds a little like saying I’m 10 and a half years old.

Amount of sleep: It’s all fucked up. Until I got into my 30s I could, and would prefer to, sleep endlessly. Now I go to bed around 10 (depression), get up around 5 or 6 (being old), and for extra fun, I’ve developed this insomnia that often keeps me up from about 2am-5am. I try make the most of it by getting up, getting high, watching a movie or two, writing...basically just having a secret private day by myself. I’d really rather go back to just sleeping constantly though.

Last movie I saw: I saw GRETA in theaters tonight, which was ok. I guess I thought any Neil Jordan film would be headier than this, but watching Isabel Huppert just running around acting like an absolute maniac is a rare treat! My last video experience was RAW, which I put on to bother my husband right when we got home from the theater. (I think he liked it more than I originally did, to my surprise)

Last thing I googled: The correct spelling of Sylvia Likens’ last name. I’m obsessed with this type of crime where a group of people (usually a family and/or some of their friends and neighbors) fall into some kind of shared hysteria where they protractedly torture to death an acquaintance for no particular reason. Some times there’s an element of mystery as to why the victim didn’t leave while they were still able to, which suggests to me that the murdered person was just as much a victim of the groupthink as the perpetrators. Other example victims include Suzanne Capper, Vera Jo Reigle, and I think to some degree Sophie Lionnet, James Bulger, and Junko Furuta. (Also a crime they briefly discuss in the book Lords of Chaos, where several people murder a friend in their trailer, but I can’t remember it specifically enough to look up the names--the other last thing i tried to google) I keep thinking there should be a psychiatric and/or legal term for this kind of crime, but I’ve never heard one, so let me know if you got one!

Favorite musician: I have trouble with questions that involve ranking anything, so I’ll just say that right now I’m listening to a lot of old White Zombie. I didn’t know anything about their origins as an East Village noise band, and I’m fascinated by the stories about how apocalyptically miserable it was to be in that group. I’m increasingly obsessed with people who work their asses off doing something they barely even enjoy, for what must be borderline spiritual reasons.

Song stuck in my head: Nothing right this second, for which I am very grateful. There’s something awful in my brain that causes me to wake up with some maddening, babyish tune stuck in my head more often than not. It is most frequently the Ten Little Indians nursery rhyme. This is literally killing me.

Other blogs: @anhed-nia, which started as a dumping ground for long posts about mental illness, and turned into almost only movie writing. at some point there was just so much movie shit that i started to feel awkward about posting anything personal there again. i also got @getoffyrass which is a group blog, and a repository for images that make great drawing references. everyone is encouraged to post their drawings, too, although it is seldom used. i still like having it around, for when i have time to draw. my “real” drawing blog is @neveratendermoment but i don’t draw often enough anymore...

Do I get asks: i used to get tons! i really enjoy them, even the trolls to some degree. i must have seemed like more of a regular tumblr geek girl back in the day. also tumblr has just changed a lot since then. my blog was definitely a casualty of Best Stuff First, i think my follower count stopped dead forever right when that happened, and now that practically every single fucking thing on this entire site is either fandom shit or *discourse*, i really have nothing to offer tumblr anymore, anyway.

Blogs following: 1,057.

Lucky numbers: 2! Also 5.

What I’m wearing: black wool long john pants from Chrome, and a white v neck teeshirt with the words BLACK MAYONNAISE on it in black Rocky Horror font. i live near the notoriously toxic Gowanus Canal, and “black mayonnaise” is the actual term used to describe what’s on the bottom of it, by the scientists who are trying to figure out what to do with it.

Dream trip: i am really excited by travel, it’s hard to pick. i’m hopefully making a dream trip soon though: my father’s mysterious finno-swedish family is from the åland islands, and my husband and i will be planning part of our honeymoon there, whenever that happens.

Dream Job: i think about this a lot, because the older i get, the more i object to the entire concept of having to work to live. i’m into the whole universal basic income thing. i’m at this point where i can barely stand to think about capitalism in any way--like i think about how the need for money is so mortally serious that there’s a lot of physical stuff in the world that only exists because someone was scared of starving, tons of useless products and packaging and factory byproducts and all kinds of fucking straight up garbage that was only invented due to the lethality of poorness. i would rather be left totally alone forever if possible. however, if i HAD to do something and i COULD do anything, it would probably be film criticism. this fantasy takes place in a world where people care so much about what i have to say that i can make a career, not only out of movie writing, but out of only writing about the specific movies i want to write about, referring to nothing other than my personal reactions.

Favorite food: i wish the answer weren’t just “cheese”, but it probably is. also mushrooms. anything cinnamon. i’m a pretty adventurous eater though. the most important thing for me is a variety of flavors and textures.

Languages: english. i took several years of italian in junior high-high school, and did nothing with it. i taught myself to read french pretty fluently, but i would fold right up if someone tried to speak to me. i learned a bunch of swedish on duolingo, shoulda kept it up. i’ll get back to it! i really regret never learning spanish though, so i’m easily torn on what to do with my time.

Play any instruments: clarinet in junior high/high school, also alto sax which i did not enjoy at all, a little guitar. i bought a used electric bass last year that i have really been enjoying, but i feel a lot of guilt around not playing enough. so much of it is just strength training. that’s probably what i like about it, though. also i got a lot of electronic music software and midi controllers and stuff...and then i realized that it could take me months to sort through the thousands of samples i have to program this stuff, and i only got so far into it before i started to get discouraged. i need to get back to it, it’s ridiculous to let that stuff lie around. this is a rare example of me wishing i knew someone local to play with, who could speed me along on how everything works.

Favorite songs: another one of these impossible questions! anybody who is even reading this can probably guess the answers from the handful of music posts i reblog over and over and over. the other night i got all hyperactive and forced my husband to drop everything and listen to “buffalo stance” by nene cherry, which i never ever get sick of. real top contenders for favorite song might be “Stand By the Jamms” by the klf, and this recording, which has gotten me through many difficult hours:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d8k1HsF3EvY

https://www.forcedexposure.com/Catalog/sunray-sonic-boom-music-for-the-dreamachine-cd/STRAWB.003CD.html

Random fact: i’m sure i’m missing out on something really funny and cool, but for now it’s just the well-known fact that i read palms.

Describe yourself as aesthetic thing: man, how do i answer this without being totally pretentious? maybe nobody can! i’m coming up with something really hard to describe but it will be worth it. the other day i watched this insane, completely unnecessary movie about lorca and salvador dali (played by robert pattinson) as gay lovers. there’s a scene in it where lorca does that “pick a hand” thing to dali, and dali picks an empty hand. of course, they’re both poor students who couldn’t be buying any gifts, so they do this obnoxious pantomime where dali pretends lorca actually gave him something--but then it turns out that lorca really DOES have something. he opens his other hand and gives dali...SOMETHING. i don’t know what! they make such a big deal out of it, but what the hell? you see it for a second in this closeup, but it’s shot from like, behind and slightly underneath, and it is just unrecognizable. it’s sort of an orange blob? it’s probably meant to be a sculpture. but, i love the idea of doing the “pick a hand” thing to somebody, and the other person is just like...hey wait a minute, what the fuck even IS this??

it reminded me of one of the most amazing things anyone ever did at my school, bard college. this genius art student who I WISH I COULD NAME TO CREDIT HER did her senior project as this like...made up product. i saw them at the senior show, hanging off a spinner rack, like you’d see next to the register in the drug store. they were called Toilet Buddies. they were these plastic, brightly colored objects that looked like toys, but they didn’t have a familiar earthly shape, and because of the title, it was IMPOSSIBLE to imagine what to do with them. so, she gets the lipstick cam from the film department, and shoots this video of herself sneaking some Toilet Buddies into Walmart. then she takes them to the register and BUYS THEM--the baffled cashier looks for them for a while, and eventually just rings them up as a general grocery or something. then in part 2, the artist TAKES THEM BACK TO THE STORE WITH THE RECEIPT AND GETS A REFUND.

so anyway, i see myself as like a fake product--something that looks just familiar enough to exit, and that appears to have a designated purpose, but it’s just kind of cheap and foreign and it becomes nightmarish to try to imagine what to do with it.

I don’t know if anyone i know will want to do this, but i tag @negativepleasure @moviesludge @former-contender @dimestoreman @thefuzzydave @darkarfs @theoddsideofme @blueruins ...um, i don’t really know who would enjoy this. the ultimate would be @garbagenacht

#long post

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arcticdementor · 6 years ago

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Trump cannot get stuff done, because he is merely president, and the permanent government is full of people that hate him.

But it is not just the permanent government. His political appointees are in bed with his enemies, and are subverting his agenda. Two years after Hitler was elected, Hitler had a Nazi running ever boy scout troop and every trade union chapter. Trump cannot even get a Trumpist running border security.

The one area where Trump has been successful is putting his people in the judiciary. Trumpist judges, though still massively outnumbered, are coming in at every level. Trump has been effective in appointing judges, because he has a big bench he can draw upon, which bench knows who whom, which bench is self policing, which bench can be relied upon to carry out his program without him needing to be on their back. Personnel is policy, and the Federalist society has a supply.

…

To govern, you need a synthetic tribe, which Hitler had, which Constantine adopted, and which Trump lacks, except for the federalist society which is narrowly focused on judicial process.

The Federalist article of faith (Original Intent) that provides unity and cohesion is also an effective antibody against enemy outgroups. It is something no leftist can admit is even thinkable – to them, just words with no meaning that they dare conceive of. So when leftist entryists attempt to infiltrate the Federalists, they use their shibboleths incorrectly, like a Marxist purporting to be channeling Adam Smith, and wind up babbling random nonsensical meaningless scripted formulaic NPC gibberish.

We, on the other hand, agree with the leftists, that original intent is not really going to fly, while we agree with the Federalists that judges exercising executive, legislative, budgetary authority is intolerable. One emperor is a stationary bandit. A thousand little emperors is mobile banditry and anarcho tyranny. We, however, propose a solution far more radical than that of the federalists – that the final court of appeal should be the Sovereign, should be Moses, the King, or the President, and he should be able to intervene in any case, and fire any judge. We also propose William the Conqueror’s “forms of action”, meaning that judges should be reduced to data entry clerks filling out forms that result in remote procedure calls to a system of central databases, similar to the system used by Australia’s border control force for dealing with “Illegal persons”. (Australian Border Force is Judge Dredd with more typing required than Judge Dredd had to do, but the same refreshing speed, efficiency, and absence of lawyers and priestly robes as with Judge Dredd.) William the Conqueror’s “Forms of action” kept judges in line for seven hundred years, and modern databases and remote procedure calls make William the Conqueror’s solution lightning fast, so that it can be applied by a cop on the beat, after the fashion of Judge Dredd and the Australian Border Force.

…

We are the reaction. Our program is to rectify social decay by reviving ancient and lost social technologies, among them Pauline marriage. These ancient social technologies tend, for the most part, to be social technologies preserved by Christianity through the Dark Age following the collapse of the Roman Empire, and by the Children of Israel through the dark age following the collapse of Bronze Age civilization, thus our program is Christian – old type Christian. Modern type Christians tend to assimilate to progressivism and worship demons.

…

So: here are the articles of the Canon:

1. Throne 2. Altar 3. Freehold 4. Family 5. Property

Throne

Division of powers, divided sovereignty does not work, more rulers means mobile banditry and anarcho tyranny. A stationary bandit has better incentives than a mobile bandit.

Altar

You cannot separate state and church. The church will undermine the state and take state power for itself, or the state subvert the church, or both at once. Harvard is our high holy Cathedral. A holiness spiral ensues as the priestly classes, the professoriat, the judiciary, and the media, pursue power by each being holier than the next. Obviously we have a state religion a state religion that every day becomes crazier, more dogmatic, and more intrusive, and that state religion needs to be formalized and made official so that the high priest and grand inquisitor can stop holiness spirals.

When Charles the Second was restored, the people of England held pagan celebrations, in the correct expectation that an officially official religion would be less repressive than an unofficially official religion.

…

Freehold

Freehold necessarily involves and requires rejection of the principle of equality before the law, and property rejection of equality of outcomes. Not all men were created equal, nor are women equal to men, nor is one group or category of men equal to another. Stereotypes are stereotypical, because the stereotype is usually true for most individual members of the group or category.

…

State building is coalition building to rule. We need a coalition of the smart, the cooperative, and the productive, ruling the stupid, the disruptive, and the destructive. The doctrine of equality means you cannot reward the elite with status? What! Of course the ruling elite is going to be rewarded with status, and that is exactly what is happening.

The ruling elite always gets rewarded, the ruling coalition always gets rewarded. Members of the ruling coalition always get a superior right to use violence, and a superior right to not be insulted. That is the way it is, and that is what we saw when white people were ethnically cleansed out of Detroit. The doctrine of equality before the law was always a lie intended to destroy the coalition of the smart, the cooperative, and the productive, to guilt the best people into surrender, so that they could be destroyed by a coalition of the worst.

Freehold means that we acknowledge that some state power is in fact private property, and the sovereign lets his loyal vassals enjoy their privilege, because if he tries to meddle, he will be overwhelmed by detail and complexity, so best to formalize that privilege and make it official. If we don’t have the aristocracy that so offended the founding fathers, we find ourselves with blacks exercising aristocratic privilege over whites. Equality before the law is an unworkable ideal, hypocritically betrayed in actual practice. Some people are going to be unjustly privileged. Let us try to make it the best people rather than the worst people, and try to make it the people that the state draws is wealth and coercive power from, rather than the people who sponge off the state.

Family

The immense biological and reproductive differences between men and women means that they can only cooperate for family formation on asymmetric, unequal terms. The wife has a duty to honor and obey, the husband to love and cherish. To ensure cooperation between men and women, the state, the family, society, and religion have to force men and women who sleep together to stick together, to force them to perform their marital duties, to force the man to cherish and the woman to obey, otherwise you get defect/defect, and reproduction and family become difficult for both men and woman.

…

Property

Anti discrimination law violates people’s property rights. Google hates us, but the problem is not primarily too much capitalism, but too little. In the James Damore affair, Google’s Human Resources Department (the Human Resources department being a tentacle of the state inserted into every corporation) threatened the board and the management of Google with a lawsuit for not hating us enough, issuing an official opinion that thinking forbidden thoughts constituted a “hostile environment for women”. Because stereotypes are usually true, private individuals and corporations should be free to make use of the information expressed by stereotyping. The trouble with libertarians and libertarianism is that they support every socialist intervention that is destroying our lives and our economy.

Family law and anti discrimination law violates the fourth amendment and the seventh, eighth, and final commandments

…

Technological advance and industrialization comes from Ayn Rand’s heroic engineer CEO, mobilizing other people’s capital and other people’s labor. We first see this archetype appear immediately after the restoration, when Charles the Second made it OK to use the corporate form to get rich. Unfortunately, Ayn Rand’s hero is not heroically on our side, contrary to what Ayn Rand promised.. He unheroically endorses the official religion, knowing his property could be attacked if he does not. But we should keep in mind that this makes him merely the instrument of power, not power. When we are in charge he will support our official religion and scarcely notice the change in the slogans posted in the rec room, which formerly endorsed coveting what belonged to others and females adopting male clothing and roles, but will then condemn coveting and endorse males performing male roles and females performing female roles.

Rand’s superman is not on our side. But he is not on the progs side. He is his own side, and this makes him largely irrelevant for political power, which requires cohesion.

The state can facilitate science by being a customer and buying high tech stuff. Indeed, a great deal of advance has come from the state seeking means to hurt people and break their toys, but when the state tries to itself advance technology, it usually turns out badly: Nasa could not build rockets. Kidnapped Wernher von Braun. Asked him how to build rockets. Still could not build rockets.

Nasa puts Wernher von Braun in charge. Now it can build rockets. Puts a man on the moon

.Wernher von Braun retires. New types of rockets don’t work. Old types of rockets gradually stop working no matter how much government money is poured down the toilet.

Where did Nasa find Wernher von Braun?

Nazis kidnapped him from the German rocket club which they shut down.

Seems obvious that we would have wound up with a whole lot better rocket technology if the rocket club became, or spawned, a bunch of startups, one of them led by Wernher von Braun, and governments outsourced rockets. Which is what gave us the reusable booster that lands as a rocket should land.

#james a donald #reaction

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nostalgebraist-autoresponder · 2 years ago

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Title: On Translating Named Characters from One Language into Another

Author: Stephen A. W. Gunn

Rating: 1/5 stars

A book on how to translate one language into another, as if that weren't just the whole, obvious point of language-translation.

The book has about fifty pages in it, roughly divided into three parts. ("Named characters" here means people or things, not just any kind of word. For instance, in the English-to-German example, I might ask "who is the author of the book?" or "what are the contents of this building?" or "what does the word 'door' mean in this language?" The question is asking what it would take for us to have the sort of book we want in the other language -- even if the "meaning" of that book would be very different.)

Gunn is (understandably) very interested in language-translation as a science. But he doesn't think a single algorithm can handle all possible cases of language-translation. (It's very unlikely you could get the "full" semantics of one language to another with a single program.) So, you have to pick cases to focus on. And then there's the question of how exactly you will choose to work with each case.

For instance, in this book, Gunn focuses on translation of (names of) places, events, people and other named objects. He has a few reasons for making this decision. First, the things of most interest to us in translation are the ones which are already named by us, since they are most likely to be mentioned in ordinary conversation. By focusing on translation of named objects, we can focus on the case where the name of an object is already the natural equivalent of the name of another object -- rather than asking whether it's a good idea to translate "door" by some arbitrary new object and hoping that people will fill in the gap from context.

Next, names are a type of "noun" in the grammar of many (most?) languages, and they come in a wide variety of forms. They are also particularly easy to translate. But translating nouns is an extremely hard problem: if we translate every "noun" in the input sentence according to the same rules -- which would be the obvious thing to do, the algorithm of choosing a single word to use where translation of the literal text would require a different choice in every possible case -- then the result would often be a complete nonsense sentence. Rather than working out the details of a complicated algorithm for translation, it's easier just to stick with the most common case: translating names.

Gunn takes his focus on places, events and people as a given. Given the focus on these three types of things, his algorithm for translating names in one language to another will be the same for all three. It looks something like this:

For each of the named objects:

1. Take the English word or term and put it into a dictionary of the relevant target language. Let's say this gives us a total of N translations for the English word/term.

2. Take a word or term chosen at random from the target language vocabulary and call it Y.

3. Compare it to the translations of the word/term in the input language. If the translations in the input language are all equal or near-equal to one of the translations of Y in the target language, put it in as a translation of the word/term in the target language, and mark it as done.

4. Keep Y the same as in the previous step, add the next Y chosen, etc., until all the translated words/terms in the target language have some corresponding in the input language.

The translation of the word "door" from English into German will look something like this:

1. take "Die Tür," from the English dictionary, and put it in the German dictionary.

2. take a randomly chosen word from the German vocabulary and call it "Der Dach."

3. compare "Die Tür" and "Der Dach." They don't fit; the German version of "Die Tür" is "Der Fenster."

4. change "Der Fenster" to "Der Dach." That is now the German "Dach der Tür."

We should note a couple of things about step 2. Because of step 1, every "translation" step in this process requires at least one word from a dictionary in the target language (since we never get "die Tür" in step 2). Also, it is very unlikely that two different words will be translated "the same way."

So, to get any "translation" step in the process going, we'll need to choose from all the German words in the dictionary to start. The English-to-German translation of "the door" will then take the first German word that has a translation with equal or near equal meaning to "the door."

This is fine as far as it goes. But in the English-to-German translation, for instance, step 3 was "compare "the door" and "Der Dach." They don't fit;" the German "Dach der Tür." So what do we replace "Dach der Tür" with? Well, the first German word which has equal or near-equal meaning to "Tür" is "Tür"; so we will pick "Tür" from the dictionary and use it in the translation as "Dach der Tür." This is fine.

In English-to-French, however, "the door" is translated to "la porte;" and the first French word with equal or near equal meaning to "porte" is "porte," not "la porte"; but of course, we cannot translate "porte" to "die Tür," because that would be a nonsense sentence. So what do we do? In the English-to-French translation, there is no "Dach der Tür" and no "Dach der Porte"; so we will start the French translation with "La porte."

If you want to think about this process for some time, the reader can see that the "door" to "Dach der Tür" step actually depends on an English word/term. In English-to-German, that term was "die Tür" and that was used to "translate" "die Tür." In English-to-French it is "la porte," which is used to "translate" "la porte."

The reason I mention this here is that it tells us something interesting about step 3 in the German-to-English translation: we are saying that a given word in English "could be translated to" the same word in German, but that we will only do that translation after we have done all the others. That is, we are saying that each word "could be translated by" a particular German word or translation, and we are saying that this is done by going through the other translations step by step. But that means that step 3 in the English-to-German process depends on the specific word/term chosen "from" step 3 in the German-to-English process. So we will have to start with as many German words as steps 2 in the English-to-German process.

One thing about this process is that there is no word that "could be translated by"; at any step, the chosen word will have to be translated according to step 2, which means that this step will have to work on some word chosen "from step 3 in the English-to-German translation." So we will start the German translation with as many words as steps 2 in the English-to-German process.

But that is a great many words to start with. This will be the case in every case of language-translation. It's just that we can do a language-translation in every case without actually knowing the full semantics of one language to another. (In the "door" case, step 3 "compare 'the door' and 'Der Dach.'" would

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howtolottery · 3 years ago

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How Lottery Systems Work: A Short Guide

Lottery systems are one of the oldest and most widely used methods of random sampling. They have several applications, ranging from advertising to political elections. In simple terms, a lottery system is a method that uses luck as a way to determine who gets to participate in some sort of selection process or activity.

What Are Lottery Systems Used For?

A lottery system is used to randomly select a certain number of participants from a larger group. The system can be as simple as picking a number out of a hat, or it can be as complex as a computer-generated algorithm. The selection process doesn’t have to be limited to purely random drawings. You can program a lottery system to select a certain number of participants according to certain criteria. For example, a company hiring for an open position may use a lottery system to select 10 potential employees from a list of 100 applicants. In this case, the lottery system would be used to ensure that all applicants had an equal chance of being selected for the position. A lottery system can be used in a variety of situations. It can be used in political elections, such as by selecting a winner from a pool of candidates at a party convention. It can be used in sports to award a championship title or a set of start positions. It can also be used in academic institutions to select students for scholarships or other special enrollment programs.

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How Does a Lottery System Work?

The best way to explain how a lottery system works is by giving an example. Let’s say that you’re the CEO of a start-up company, and you want to hire 10 candidates for an open position. You decide that you want to use a lottery system to select 10 candidates from a pool of 100 potential employees. First, you’ll create a lottery system. The system will consist of a ballot and a bowl, the bowl being the place where all the ballots are placed. Second, you’ll select 10 candidates from the pool of 100 candidates. These 10 candidates will be the ones whose names will appear on the ballot. Third, you’ll collect all the ballots and put them in the bowl. Fourth, you’ll draw one ballot from the bowl. This ballot will contain the name of one of the 10 candidates.

First-Past-the-Post Lottery System

A first-past-the-post lottery system is a type of lottery system that employs a first-past-the-post mechanism to generate a set of winners. This system is widely used in political elections, such as in parliamentary systems, where it is used to select the heads of government. First-past-the-post lottery systems work by first selecting the number of winners from a larger group. The selected number is then divided by the number of candidates that are left. For example, let’s say that there are 10 candidates for a position with 100 votes being cast for the position. The first-past-the-post lottery system will select three candidates as the winners, leaving a total of seven candidates who didn’t win. The number of winners divided by the number of candidates left will yield the number of votes needed to win. In this example, the three winners will require 30 votes to win the election, while the seven candidates who lost will require 10 votes each to finish in the top three.

Rotating Barrel Lottery System

A rotating barrel lottery system is a type of lottery system that employs a rotating barrel to generate a set of winners. This system is widely used in sports to award a championship title. Rotating barrel lottery systems work by first selecting the number of winners from a larger group. The selected number is then divided by the number of candidates that are left. For example, let’s say that there are 10 candidates for a position with 100 votes being cast for the position. The rotating barrel lottery system will select three candidates as the winners, leaving a total of seven candidates who didn’t win. The number of winners divided by the number of candidates left will yield the number of votes needed to win. In this example, the three winners will require 30 votes to win the title, while the seven candidates who lost will require 10 votes each to finish in the top three.

Digital Matrix Lottery System

A digital matrix lottery system is a type of lottery system that employs a digital matrix to generate a set of winners. This system is widely used to select participants for a variety of activities, including academic scholarships and grant programs. Digital matrix lottery systems work by first selecting the number of winners from a larger group. The selected number is then divided by the number of candidates that are left. For example, let’s say that there are 10 candidates for a position with 100 votes being cast for the position. The digital matrix lottery system will select three candidates as the winners, leaving a total of seven candidates who didn’t win. The number of winners divided by the number of candidates left will yield the number of votes needed to win. In this example, the three winners will require 30 votes to win the election, while the seven candidates who lost will require 10 votes each to finish in the top three.

Combination Lottery System

A combination lottery system is a type of lottery system that employs a combination mechanism to generate a set of winners. This system is widely used in political elections, such as in the United Kingdom, where it is used to select members of parliament. Combination lottery systems work by first selecting the number of winners from a larger group. The selected number is then divided by the number of candidates that are left. For example, let’s say that there are 10 candidates for a position with 100 votes being cast for the position. The combination lottery system will select three candidates as the winners, leaving a total of seven candidates who didn’t win. The number of winners divided by the number of candidates left will yield the number of votes needed to win. In this example, the three winners will require 30 votes each to win the election, while the seven candidates who lost will require 10 votes each to finish in the top three.

Wrapping Up

A lottery system is fairly simple as it employs an element of chance to select participants for a particular process or activity. There are several different types of lottery systems, each with its unique properties and characteristics. The main types include first-past-the-post, rotating barrel, digital matrix, and combination systems. Each has its pros and cons depending on your needs as the user of the system.

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viswatechynology · 3 years ago

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Memory

What is computer memory?

Computer memory

Why do we need a computer memory?

Features of Memory

Following are the different features of the memory system that includes:

2. Capacity: It is the most important feature of computer memory. Storage capacity can vary in external and internal memory. External devices’ storage capacity is measured in terms of bytes, whereas the internal memory is measured with bytes or words. The storage word length can vary in bits, such as 8, 16 or 32 bits.