#western science vs eastern religion | Explore Tumblr Posts and Blogs

alivingstillness · 4 years

Text

Awareness and the thought-web analogy as a communicative foundation

An analytical view on communicatio through the lenses of Advaita philosophy.

1. INTRODUCTION

Throughout the life of a human being, there is a complex communicative process taking place within and without ourselves. When we view communication as a tool to meddle within perception, we are likely to think of one source exchanging information with another in the form of subject to subject. But if we are to imagine an internal conversation (monologue), we can think of the communicative process to be held within one subject.

To discern within the internal process of thinking, I will divide the subject into two parts: I (the thinker or perceiver) and thought (the perceived). Perception itself can in a sense be said to be two or-threefold, either in the form of perceiver-perceived or perceiver-perceiving-perceived, (the last part: perceived, can, for example, be an object and the perception (of) it may differ from perceiver to perceiver. A perception is a form of communication even if it is completely internal. But who or what is actually the communicator when we start to investigate our intimate process of thinking and is it possible to distinguish the meeting-points within perception by becoming aware of our conscious and subconscious mechanism of thinking?

Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP)

Is an approach to communication where the human psyche has a central focus. NLP deals with techniques and exercises in sort of reprogramming our mind, which works with our communicative language in such a way that negative experiences of behavioral patterns can give us insight into how to transform our responses to have a positive effect. NLP holds an extensive amount of theories relating our senses with mind, behavior, and thought patterns. I will not investigate all branches within NLP, but I will in this work focus on the parallels between its science and that of self-inquiry and meditation and how self-awareness relates to communicative conflicts.

For our heart to function properly there is constant communication taking place within our body and importantly in our brain that we don’t pay much attention to. I will present an investigation into our ability to become more aware of our internal language in the form of thinking, and how it could relate to emotional, cultural, and other forms of psychological factors.

From an internal investigation into communication, I will further develop how this can function as a window of perception towards a better understanding of our communication with other people, and attempt to discern between conscious and subconscious reactions.

I hope that this work can aid as a help to better understand conflict and the build-up of our persona through our multi-layered language.

2. PERSPECTIVE

I have chosen to investigate communication through the lenses of self-inquiry and will use the example of becoming a witness to our internal thought-pattern. My field of interest in this communicative process comes from a non-dual yogic perspective (Advaita philosophy, Trika Tantra, Tao, or Zen Buddhism).

All paths regarded as non-dual in their teachings points towards the realization of an underlying cause or witness to the tendencies of the mind. I will in my investigation too, point towards the notion of this witnessing aspect beyond the individual psyche in the hope for the reader to expand their view upon their own communicative behavior.

This written work is solemnly analytical and theoretical, and shows my personal cognitive understanding towards the subject, through the lenses of my own thought-pattern formed by my yogic view.

3. ANALYSIS

Awareness and the thinking of being

Within direct-realization non-dual teachings, the doing of meditation and distinction of spiritual practice becomes concepts from the perspective of the individual, who ultimately is considered to only exist as one window into Self-perception through the action of thinking. But who or what is really the doer, or the witness to thinking?

Our experience of duality is apparent in all its subtle and grosser layers. Non-dual teachings point towards the relationship between the unmanifest and manifest as simultaneously present within all beings and creation (Shiva-Shakti, Alpha-Omega). “Awareness” or “pure consciousness” are commonly used terms to describe the nature of the Self that is the core of non-dual teachings.

To easier understand how this applies to communication and language, it would mean that instead of there being subjects and objects/or matter, there would ultimately just exist one grand subject that is pure consciousness, and perception will in its truth not be divided into parts. This non-dual consciousness has, by its own will and movement, given birth manifest form, within and from its own being.

It is a complex philosophy that has been recorded in some of the oldest eastern scriptures and later given birth to many schools of philosophy, religion, and western free thinkers. In its teachings, the laws of the universe are highly dependent on vibration and energy, yet there is always an underlying cause that binds the sprouting of expansion together: The Self, that can be said to be awareness aware of itself, pure untainted consciousness, or even mind absent from thought-quality.

“If you want to find the secrets of the Universe, think in terms of energy, frequency, and vibration.” ― Nicola Tesla

The world as we perceive it is said to be largely stored in the collective and forgetful nature of Self-activity (shakti) because of the sprouting of creation. We can think of the terms “Awareness” vs. “Awareness of”, meaning, that as soon as we become aware of something, the “something” is externalized and divided from our being, making us see ourselves as separate from the perceived. Some yogic teachings provide us with techniques to help us reverse and zoom out to witness the play of perception taking place within ourselves, and to finally let awareness become aware of its own awareness. Here a parallel to Jung’s collective unconscious and karmic patterns suits to be mentioned.

“Until you make the unconscious conscious, it will direct your life and you will call it faith.”

“So far as we have any information about man, we know that he has always and everywhere been under the influence of dominating ideas. Anyone who alleges that he is not can immediately be suspected of having exchanged a known form of belief for a variant which is less known both to himself and to others.” ― C.G. Jung, “The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious”

If an individual uses practice to investigate Self-awareness by exponentially becoming more aware of what is perceived and perception itself, eventually the practice has the potential to dissolve by itself. I have developed an analogy for the purpose of self-inquiry that can be used as a technique to strengthen the conscious relationship with yourself as a witness of yourself. The idea behind the technique I shall present is largely inspired by Jnana yoga and the teachings of Ramana Maharshi, who encouraged the thinker to constantly question oneself by the words of: “To whom has this thought occurred?”

The thought-web analogy, (a practice in self-inquiry)

If I am immersed in a relaxed state of being and a thought pops up in my awareness, I can say “I am aware of this thought”. Now, if I were to follow this thought by asking: to whom does this thought appear?

I would find another thought “to me”, yet it is not enough to say that the one thought came into existence by one other. It is though more correct to say that the thought came into existence by a trillion or so other thoughts, creating the space-time constructed individual consciousness of myself.

If I was to picture this bundle of thoughts making me, me, I would picture something like an intricate bundle of complex patterns, sort of like a multidimensional web of thoughts as strings, being held together by each other.

Each string has itself a complex patterning of other types of subtle phenomena, relating cognition to aspects of emotions and memories, etc. So through these layers the pattern thought-connection makes can vary from one layer to another, making this web of thoughts a hell of a mess to un-tie.

So, since I started my investigation I have found that not only am I aware of these thoughts when they appear, but I have found myself to be aware of a hopeless thought-maze, and the finding of an exit within it seems like an impossible mission.

I can now see that my persona is not only related to this web, but that it is held within the substratum of it.

A new question then arises: Am I just what I think myself to be, and do I even have any control over it?

If it is so that the sum of my individuality is held by a belief system of what I think myself to be, am I not a mere puppet then, held together by invisible strings meticulously tied in ways too complex for my own understanding- which would also be the sum of the very same pattern.

At this point, I have not yet realized the potential of my awareness, for this is where I decide to bypass this bundle of what I think myself to be and decide to take a leap of neglect in the sense of a short-cut straight to the first connective thought-tissue that birthed the sense of “I am”.

Somehow a three-fold perception must have come into existence in the same bundle of primary individual thoughts of myself through perceiver-perception-perceived. This is when awareness becomes really interesting, for you see, as soon I have experienced this leap in my own awareness, awareness itself may become aware of itself and the three-fold perception will explode into new meaning.

But I will not develop this any further, yet I encourage you to play with the investigation mentioned. I will, though, sprout for the idea that the foundation demonstrated above can be seen as a microcosm to a macrocosm creating our collective consciousness, bound in the web of samsara until awareness prevails.

“I think 99 times and find nothing. I stop thinking, swim in silence, and the truth comes to me.” ― Albert Einstein

Speech of silence

Words are problematic by nature, because language as a way of communication, description, and discernment can perpetuate our understanding of the known (perceiver, perceived, and perception itself), and let us deepen our conceptual understanding. Yet in reference to non-dual view, Self-realization does not come forth through word-language. It reaches us first in silence (which is incomplete in its statement because the word “silence” is referenced to from the concept of sound), before totally permeating even spoken language with its foundation as the absolute.

Word-expression is potent and can point us inward because of the layers of cognition and emotion intertwined with content and meaning given to it, making our experience of a word or a piece of poetry very intimate. Even though there might be a common understanding of the language used, the layers of viewing differ from individual to individual.

Words can act as powerful seeds when integrated and can point towards self-inquiry. In the same sense, they can wake feelings within, allowing us to follow towards the root of the perceived feeling. Japa mantra is a powerful tool to infuse our minds with the desired scent or meaning of the word. For example, if we often recite AUM 108 times internally or externally, we will eventually taint our being with our understanding of the meaning of AUM increasingly. Its vibration will affect us, and relations to our personal layers of the word AUM will steer our minds in the directions intertwined with it. Your mind is a magnet that attracts your reality.

But as much as language is fantastic in its tremendous depth that goes beyond the examples just mentioned, there comes a point in journeying towards the end of spiritual searching, where words will take you no further. In the crown of your being, sounds emerge in absence of senses.

“It is only in alert silence, that truth can be”

― Jiddu Krishnamurti

NLP and Meditation

I have in my analysis, described a method for investigating one's thought pattern, and pointed towards how this web of thinking relates to cognitive and emotional layers within ourselves.

When there is an expansion in our awareness and we are abiding in a state where we can calmly observe our internal language and reactions, it is called meditation. By realizing how thought-patterns build up and relate to our persona, we naturally have the opportunity to distance ourselves towards our perceived thoughts and emotions. This realization regarding our internal

language will permeate how we react when we communicate with others, and it will influence our understanding of others’ responses. In a sense, we can say that one naturally becomes more forgiving towards conflicts with others or even within ourselves. We might also develop the ability to recognize the build-up of a conflict in action, and then use language more consciously.

Because of an increased level of awareness and witnessing, of the many layers of individual persona, there is the opportunity for recognizing the immensity of influences that have played part in creating the individual consciousness at any given moment. Anything from social construct, environment, economy, politics, childhood trauma, relationships, ..well anything that has affected our persona has had some effect on us, and therefore, our internal and external communication.

These layers or pattern-buildups must influence our being similar to how we influence that which is perceived to be outside of us. By practicing awareness and abiding in our inner stillness we can become less reactionary. In a way, we can see that much of our communication happens in effect to subconscious influence by our language towards, or within ourselves. Through this recognition, we have the opportunity to become more conscious of the way we communicate. It is a form of reprogramming our being to communicate more consciously by increasing our awareness of our subconscious or, more consciously using the potency of language. This is an effect of meditation or self-inquiry.

Neuro-linguistic programming works similarly. But as meditation and self-inquiry naturally affect ourselves and others as an outcome of it, NLP actively intends to reprogram people’s behavioral patterns. The method of NLP deals with noticing the negative behavioral patterns of a person, and then, using the qualities of the behavior to become a beneficial aid for reprogramming. An example: someone who suffers from anxiety, and has a vivid way of experiencing it, usually has a strong relationship between memory and visual thinking. The Neuro-linguistic programmer could then decide to treat the patient using visual tools of reprogramming, because of the visual imprints already affecting the patient’s wellbeing. Visual NLP therapy could include the “movie theatre technique”, a technique that allows the patient to imagine watching their traumatic experience on a screen. The patient fasts forward, rewinds, and plays their experience several times to gradually disassociate themselves from the trauma. This disassociation happens on a subconscious level while the patient consciously revisits an experience. By using the movie theatre technique the NL-programmer can together with the patient tweak the negative thought patterns. This can be done by first becoming aware of thoughts, feelings, and behavior relating to a traumatic memory, and then imagine them to include a more positive experience. One can think of NLP in comparison to meditation/self-inquiry as a treatment to be considered doing vs. allowing effect.

Both NLP and meditation regard our experience to be subjective, and should in that sense be treated by an investigation into the subject of experiencing.

4. CONCLUSION

However we choose to view an individual's linguistic or communicative factors, it is obvious that there are grosser and more subtle forms, as well as there are conscious and subconscious.

Since much of our communication and personal patterning happens at the subtle and subconscious levels of our being, our external communication is equally affected.

The outstanding factor linking NLP and meditative practice is awareness. If a person increases their awareness of their behavior, the person gains insight into the mechanism of themselves and their communicative language. This increase of individual awareness allows for the individual to realize themselves apart from the behavioral patterns present, and therefore allowing for more conscious behavior, and dissociation from a negative experience.

When we act from a more conscious mindset and abide in a meditative state, the reactionary web of our persona becomes slower and less potent in stirring our emotions. Meditation and Self-inquiry can both be helpful for the person who is hoping to become more conscious of his or her behavior or psyche, and for the seeker looking to go to the very depth of the immensity of their being.

I acknowledge that NLP can help treat specific behavioral patterns. Yet I believe that the keys towards understanding and affecting the persona and its communicative patterns lays within awareness and consciousness itself. And to experience the fruits of action, one has to go within, where one can experience not only one's internal language but the absence of it.

I would also like to point out that since experience is subjective, there exist numerous tools, techniques, or therapies besides NLP or meditative practice that lets us investigate into communication. This work only shows one window of perception among other possible viewpoints.

Trace one thought and find another, dismiss them all and find yourself.

/Alexandra

#psychology #nlp #neurolinguisticprogramming #consiousness #meditation #awareness #yoga #nonduality #nondual #advaita #advaitavedanta #shiva #selfinquiry #ramanamaharshi #nicolatesla #carl jung #albert einstein

11 notes · View notes

sunfin3k · 4 years

Text

Chinese Polymaths, 100 – 300 AD: the Tung-kuan, Taoist Dissent, and Technical Skills by Howard L. Goodman

Themes: Luoyang; Objects

Overview:

This essay is on polymathy. Goodman says that at the time this essay was written it was a new field of study. He defines the term, initially in an ancient western context, as a new kind of knowledge. This is contrasted with polydidactics which is conventional knowledge, the set texts for a given context. To cover the topic, he is going to study some well-known early scholars of China to see what skills and teachings feature in their writings. Goodman holds up Pei Songzhi up as an example of one doing this, after he rewrote a conventional history in a new way. His study will focus on three areas; cultural history, synergy among skills and the impact upon our historical methods.

Goodman begins with the Dong guan [Tung-kuan], the court institution of learning for Eastern Han. It was a building within the palace that some very limited few scholars were allowed access to. It became the centre for polymathy as debates started about textual and ritual authorities which allowed for developing new ideas and approaches. The first important scholar linked with this was Pan Gu the historian. Initially the Dong guan was just a centre for historical record keeping but gradually became a centre for other areas too. For example, before Pan Gu was arrested there was evidence he was working on mathematical astrology.

Next Goodman takes a side step away from his primary topic to look at the impact the Dong guan had on politics. While few male scholars had access, eunuchs and the Emperor’s harem did and this may have led to the struggles between the two factions. This is because the scholars who did have access were those who had deigned to take a low paid job and position within the court – there was no formal role; however, it was deemed worth it because of the rare selection of books that were kept within.

When Goodman gets to the reign of Emperor Huan, he says that Daoism and Daoist rites became increasingly used by the Court. The Dong guan as a result became known as a centre for the study of Daoist texts. Goodman is keen to make a distinction between the mainstream Daoism and the Neo-Daoism of various rebel groups that arose around the same time. Suggesting that the Daoism of the scholars was more academic and was probably not practised in their private religion Scholars wished to be appointed to the Dong guan as it allowed them to be paid to further their studies without having to engage in factional strife, and Goodman gives an overview and examples of scholars who were executed for speaking out against the eunuchs, including a long section on Cai Yong who headed up the Dong guan until his death.

Goodman turns to astrology and court music. However, he points out that both of these were tied to rites and therefore legitimacy and so during the days of a falling dynasty these were perilous things to be studying as implications of disloyalty were never far away. Cai Yong led an attempt to try and rediscover a style of court music. The success (or lack) of the attempt itself is unimportant to Goodman’s study what he is interested in is the presence of a research program which “pushed the polymath envelope.”

The Dong guan and most of its material was destroyed in the fire in Luoyang set by Dong Zhuo so there was a period where it didn’t exist. Many years later the Imperial Library of Wei filled the gap, while in Wu and Shu some sort of Dong guan was established – Chen Shou was appointed to Shu’s. Western Jin created a formalised role called a Gentleman drafter, a change from the unofficial role in the Han. They were placed under the direction of the Imperial Library.

Between the burning of Luoyang and the Imperial Library assuming the role originally filled by the Dong guan, polymathy occurred more in local “schools”. Guan Lu, described as an outsider, is used as a case study to examine how this happened. After studying what he believed, Goodman contrasts him with Cai Yong. The later searched for knowledge in historical texts and ceremonial rites whereas Guan Lu used divination.

Goodman turns to study a third polymath. This one is Xun Xu. He spends some time describing the Xun clan. Goodman notes that Xun’s writings didn’t talk about Daoist or Confucian ideas, which was different to his direct contemporaries, and also different to the Dong guan school. However, Goodman argues that his polymathy grew out of the Dong guan school, this is because of the way he was informed by ancient devices and crossed bureaucratic lines, just as Cai Yong did. He was in charge of the Imperial library until he fell foul of politics.

The conclusion contrasts Roman polymaths with Ancient Chinese ones. One of the big differences he picks up on is how in the East the opportunities to make their mark as a polymath was inside the court. What made them worthy of study though, in this field was the way they approached science and rites with attitudes and methods that had no pedigree, developing techniques that later Tang polymaths built upon.

Analysis:

This is an incredibly technical essay. For those who are interested in the development of thought in the Han dynasty it is a truly great piece. It also provides an insight into the world of Cai Yong and the prominent Xun clan. Its discussion of the Dong guan school also provides another angle into the Eunuch vs scholar struggle. However, political history is not the primary aim of this study and if that is your area of interest you have to wade through a lot of other detail to find nuggets.

#polymathy #later han #cai yong #guan lu #xun xu #howard l. goodman

16 notes · View notes

script-a-world · 5 years

Note

Hey I have a question about creating countries that are made up of islands, but not have seafood as a staple and vegetarianism is the norm among religious adherents and even among common people vegetarianism isn't unheard of. How can that make sense?

Tex: I don’t know how far back you want to look in order to find an island culture that doesn’t eat seafood or any other type of meat, but for the sake of context I’ll be throwing some darts around the map and see what island cultures typically eat.

I’ll start with Pacific Islanders and list a few of the cultures from the Pacific Ocean:

Polynesian region, composed of peoples such as the Samoans, Māori, Tahitians, Native Hawaiians, and Tongans

Micronesian region, composed of peoples such as the Carolinians, Chamorros, Chuukese, and Nauruans

Melanesian region, composed of peoples such as the Papuans, Moluccans, the Austronesian descendants in Vanuatu, and at a stretch the Torres Strait Islanders of Australia

These groups are roughly divided into two ethnolinguistic groups: the Austronesian peoples who speak Oceanic languages, and the Papuan peoples who speak the Papuan languages. For the most part, both groups are from Southeast Asia (the Papuan first wave was from the Malay Archipelago), and their linguistic origins reflect that.

It should be noted that none of these people ultimately originated from these island regions - they all came from part of a continent that was close to the Pacific Ocean. Ye olde ages ago did their ancestors decide to strike out and immigrate to new areas, and their diet adapted accordingly. Religions that ban the eating of things like shellfish and animals are a comparatively recent phenomenon, because it meant abstaining from an easily-accessible food source.

I’m going to momentarily branch off and list some island cultures of the Atlantic Ocean so my examples are a little more balanced:

Northern: Faroe Islands (Danish, sort of), Iceland, Baffin Island (Canada)

Eastern: Azores (Portugal), Canary Islands (Spain), Madeira (Portugal), São Tomé and Príncipe (Gulf of Guinea)

Western: Barbados of the Lesser Antilles, Prince Edward Island (Canada, a traditional island of the Miꞌkmaq), and Cuba (native lands of the Guanahatabey, Taíno, and Ciboney)

Antarctic region: Tierra del Fuego (Chile, native land to the Yaghan),

Many of these islands were close to nearby continents, and often traded with each other for resources, so there is cultural precedent of eating things other than marine life. A couple examples would be the Taíno, and the Kalinago peoples, both of whom originate from South America. The Yaghan “traveled by canoes between islands to collect food: the men hunted sea lions, while the women dove to collect shellfish”, so still ate some form of meat.

For a couple of Atlantic island examples that did not have indigenous people: the sailors who visited Ascension Island hunted the local birds and turtles for food, and those whole lived on Saint Helena imported livestock, fruit trees, and vegetables for the purpose of colonization.

Many, if not all, of these Atlantic islanders also ate meat of some sort, be it livestock from a continent, birds, fish, or shellfish. Historically speaking, meat of any sort was a cheaply-obtained food in terms of net caloric gain compared to net calories spent obtaining said food.

While the over-consumption of anything is bad, and red meats in particular are often touted as lending an increased risk for cardiovascular diseases - which a 2016 meta-analysis noted frequently occurred with a lifestyle risk factor (Citation 1) - red meat in moderation is fairly healthy (Citation 2, Citation 3). There is evidence that diet affects the activation of different alleles (phys.org), which is indicative of a population’s change toward agriculture (Citation 4), though in particular an overconsumption of carbohydrates can result in metabolic inflammation and obesity (ScienceDaily).

Humans are omnivorous by default, and require 20 amino acids in order to be healthy. The nine that the human body cannot produce must be consumed from an outside source - MedicalNewsToday does an excellent job of breaking this down and informing readers of viable sources of each of these essential amino acids. Unfortunately for those who might have abstained from meat before the invention of supplements, the healthiest diet for them was made with the addition of dairy products (Citation 5, eggs (The Incredible Egg, Citation 6), and fish (Seafood Health Facts 1, Seafood Health Facts 2, Citation 7)

As I don’t know the level of technology your countries, I cannot make the assumption that non-meat amino acids can be created and distributed to your populace in a relatively inexpensive manner. The nutrient density of meat vs non-meat foods is debatable (Citation 8), so I would hesitate to forgo meat entirely in a culture without some reason as to why an otherwise viable source of nutrition cannot be used.

Human nutrition is plainly a complex topic with many sub-specialities, and would take any one of us a very long time to adequately explain even a portion of it, especially in conjunction with anthropological factors such as geographic origin and developed cultural norms. I’ve added some more things to peruse in the Further Reading section below, but please be aware that all of this only starts to scratch the surface of what you’ve asked. If you would like to return with more precise questions, we’d be more than happy to try answering them.

Citations

PDF - Song M, Fung TT, Hu FB, et al. Association of Animal and Plant Protein Intake With All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176(10):1453–1463. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.4182

PDF - McAfee, Alison J., et al. "Red meat consumption: An overview of the risks and benefits." Meat science 84.1 (2010): 1-13.

PDF - Wyness, Laura. "The role of red meat in the diet: nutrition and health benefits." Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 75.3 (2016): 227-232.

PDF - Ye, Kaixiong, et al. "Dietary adaptation of FADS genes in Europe varied across time and geography." Nature ecology & evolution 1.7 (2017): 0167.

PDF - Rafiq, Saima et al. “Chemical Composition, Nitrogen Fractions and Amino Acids Profile of Milk from Different Animal Species.” Asian-Australasian journal of animal sciences vol. 29,7 (2015): 1022-8. doi:10.5713/ajas.15.0452

PDF - Hoffman, Jay R., and Michael J. Falvo. "Protein–which is best?." Journal of sports science & medicine 3.3 (2004): 118.

PDF - Ralston, Nicholas VC. "Selenium health benefit values as seafood safety criteria." EcoHealth 5.4 (2008): 442-455.

PDF - Bohrer, Benjamin M. "Nutrient density and nutritional value of meat products and non-meat foods high in protein." Trends in food science & technology 65 (2017): 103-112.

Further Reading:

Greater Antilles - Wikipedia

Gulf and sea island of the Atlantic Ocean - Wikipedia

List of Caribbean islands - Wikipedia

Amino acid synthesis - Wikipedia

“Microbial production of amino acids and derived chemicals: synthetic biology approaches to strain development.” - PubMed

Lobster history as prison food - Wikipedia

Religious restrictions on the consumption of pork - Wikipedia

Taeniasis/cysticercosis - World Health Organization

“How Dietary Supplements Work” - How Stuff Works

“Risks and side effects of dietary supplements” - American Cancer Society

PDF - ADVERSE EFFECTS OF NUTRACEUTICALS AND DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS by MJJ Ronis et al.

Dietary Supplements - National Institutes of Health (NIH)

“Evolution of tryptophan and its foremost metabolites’ concentrations in milk and fermented dairy products” by Antonella Bertazzo et al.

PDF - Associations of Maternal Vitamin B12 Concentration in Pregnancy With the Risks of Preterm Birth and Low Birth Weight: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Individual Participant Data by Tormod Rogne et al.

Saphira: A less historical approach would be to analyze why the Vegetarianism is highlighted by Religious pursuit. I would even gamble that the culture was originally focused on seafood, until something changed. Did a new predator enter the seas, making it hard to feed the people? Did they overfish? Who knows.

But something saved them from starvation when the waters rose empty. Things grew on land. Either it was a gift from the Divines that they worship, or a Prophet, or perhaps there’s even a stranger lore more Maoi styled: And so the [Divine] in all their wisdom told [ancient hero] to take the last fish of the sea, and plant it on the highest hill. [Ancient hero] fed their family from the catch, but did not eat the last fish. Hungry and tired, they climbed to the highest peak and planted the fish in the Earth- and the [Divine] blessed his faith and good will. From the fish sprouted the first [main plant food], in such abundance, that [Ancient Hero] ate their fill, and brought down the plenty for the first farmers.Contrived? Yes. Tried and true? You betcha. Consider how the habits and the rituals they serve today serve as tethers, or tangible connections to their heritage, history and culture.

Constablewrites: Writing With Color covered the role of cows in Hinduism here, which might be helpful for framing your thinking. But when religion is negatively impacting the survival of the community, it’s generally more likely that religion sprouts a loophole than that the whole tribe piously starves to death. (See also the Catholic church designating beaver as a fish for purposes of Lent.)

#pylons #island #food #fish #food supply #Anonymous

69 notes · View notes

eastereerrz-blog · 5 years

Text

Beautiful easter pictures

Easter Images - Easter in Kosova Vs America The coloring of Easter eggs is a typical convention in Kosova Vs America. In kosova, normally, Easter month begins anyplace between March 22 and April 25. Loaned is viewed as forty days in length, since Sundays are not considered as a part of the times of Lent. The main seven day stretch of Palm Sunday denotes the start of Holy Week. The last seven day stretch of Lent is the prior week Easter Sunday. Like other significant days in the Easter month, (for instance, Spy Wednesday, "The Last Supper") happens on Thursday.... [tags: Christian Traditions]

- One of the customs of my family growing up was what occurred on Easter Sunday morning. On Easter Sunday morning we'd find a workable pace church and go looking for easter eggs. Now and again however, I think we feel a similar path about finding the desire of God in our lives. Then again, actually the quest for the desire of God isn't so enjoyment as scanning for easter eggs. It's baffling to look for something that occasionally appears to be difficult to discover. The greater part of us, around the time of secondary school or Jr. High, we were advised we expected to begin scanning for God's will in earnest.... [tags: The paper doesn't finish.]

- Easter is a strict occasion that commends the restoration of Jesus Christ three days after his passing by torturous killing around 2,000 years back. For Christians, Easter is a day of strict administrations and the social event of family. In numerous places of worship Easter comes after a period of petition, restraint, and fasting called Lent. This is seen in memory of the 40 days' quick of Christ in the desert. In Eastern Orthodox houses of worship Lent is 50 days. In Western Christen religions Lent is watched for about a month and a half and four days.... [tags: papers examine papers]

- Pacific Ocean covers very nearly 33% of our planet. In the focal and south-western pieces of the island are situated in Oceania. Taking a gander at the guide, you can see that the more distant toward the east of Australia, the littler size of the islands are, the rarer they are. And afterward a huge number of kilometers of water surface - and her landmass of South America. Individuals occupy the sea to the extent the most remote islands. Regardless of the hugeness of these separations, Polynesians communicate in related dialects and are exceptionally near one another in physical kind and culture.... [tags: pacific sea, easter island, pastoralists]

- Passover v. Easter Today, a great many individuals observe Easter as a significant strict occasion, while Passover is all around overlooked. Numerous individuals will be astounded to find that the day God directed us as devotees to see in the Bible is the Day being disregarded. Right now, will analyze this recognition (occasion) with the directions about love found in the Bible in regards to His "Sacred Day" of Passover. The word Easter is the English word for "Ishtar" it is discovered just once in the King James Version Bible, (Acts 12:4) and there, it was mistranslated from the Greek work Pascha, which actually implies Passover.... [tags: Easter Christianity Religion Religious]

- Pattern, Language, and Shape of "Easter Wings" George Herbert, the seventeenth century artist and creator, lived and composed at the beginning of a time of reason, when the English individuals were understudies of both technical disciplines, for example, science and material science, and of religion. This was when "Ministers were experts on all issues, religious administrators structured flying pontoons, attorneys knew the fine purposes of philosophy, [and] doctors composed lovely verses and energetic writing" (Witherspoon 298). In such a period, an artistic work would rapidly be overlooked in the event that it couldn't rouse interest.... [tags: Easter Wings]

- The Easter Controversy Easter is the most significant festival for Christianity since it celebrates the Resurrection of Jesus Christ, a primary thought whereupon the confidence is assembled. Likewise, it is the rule feast and the high purpose of the ministerial year, which has been a set up custom as old as Christianity. Easter has been generally seen since the center of the subsequent century. The first festival for the most part comprised of a vigil with readings followed by a dining experience with the Eucharist.... [tags: Papers]

1 note · View note

weditchthemap · 5 years

Text

Scientists Search Externally While Yogis Search Internally for Meaning, Truth, & Purpose

A Scientist (Western Trained Mind) Searches Externally for Meaning, Truth, & Purpose

Searching for Meaning Externally is Fundamentally Flawed and Destroying the Country

Many years of travel has taught me more about life and what really matters than my entire education from pre-school up through and including engineering graduate school. The western world, largely led by the US, devotes its energies on searching for answers through the only method our culture values, through the use of external lenses. Through the use of logic and reason scientists set out to explain (or try to) the world in which we live. Some may argue and say that we also study neurotransmitters and stress reduction techniques in the office, which counts as an inward look. Do not be confused—these are still very much external reductionist explanations for our infinitely unknowable world.

Our constant external search for truth and meaning is not bad in and of itself. However this single-mindedness has led without the tools to search inwards for these same things (e.g. truth and meaning). We unconsciously refute lifestyles and claims that draw upon inward looking tools—we do so as a self-preservation defense mechanism against the great unknown as these ideas do not rely on science. America’s credo may as well be “If it cannot be measured it doesn’t matter!” This may sound trivial but it has had profound effects on our society. We have shunned inward “unmeasurable” realities in favor of constantly pursuing material truths. This has bled over from pure scientific inquiry into our everyday lives and I believe it is a primary source of our country’s depression, stress, suicide, obesity, gun violence, racism, and so many other issues that plague our nation. Are we spending our time measuring or mattering?

We Have Created a Society Where Money is on Top of Our Value System

Money has become the ultimate external goalpost and all lenses are focused on the almighty greenback. When we aren’t sprinting for the end zone we distract ourselves watching mindless TV, playing stupid games, and using social media so that we do not have to actually confront who we are on the inside—because most of us in America are completely empty when you scratch away at our curated façade. Cultures that value looking within to develop “inner peace” (or what some call spirituality) do not suffer from the massive amounts of depression, suicide, gun violence, mass shootings, violent crimes, etc.

We are so detached with what actually matters that many of us take a personal interest in the lives of others simply because they have money (e.g. CEO ‘A’, basketball star ‘B’, movie actress ‘C’, etc.). We idolize athletes and celebrities—Not only is it trivial but I think it demonstrates a real deficit in our current culture. A young child can throw a ball into a hoop and perform in an elementary rendition of “Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat” but for some reason we think that people that do these thing well are worthy of praise and idolization? I’m really good at playing roller-coaster with my 3-year old niece, where are my endorsements? I understand that people enjoy various types of pastimes and that is all good and fine. As a side note: It wasn’t until very recently that athletes and actors were paid more than a lower-middle class wage. Our incessant search for all things external has led us to live a sheepish life where we value distracting entertainment above all else. Thus the money has flowed into these areas. Don’t even get me started on how individuals can make millions of dollars playing video games on YouTube.

Money Has Become Our Primary Motivator, Leaving Us Empty Inside

The people that actually matter (and I mean people trying to make the world a better place) go largely unnoticed. How many people have ever heard of Sophie Scholl, Thich Nhat Hanh, Liu Xiaobo, or W.E.B. Du Bois? Athletes and celebrities are measured in RBIs, # of Golden Globes, along with their ridiculous annual salaries. Americans actually spend their time consuming media about how these people spend their money, what diets they use, where they vacation, what they wear, and so on.

Now you can chastise me and say, “Scott, it’s a free country and we are lucky enough that people can choose how they want to spend their money”. I would counter that argument with, “Sure, and they can choose to spend it on the metal detectors at their children’s schools, pharmaceutical drugs keeping them alive, depression clinics, paying off their college debt, all while enjoying their measly 2 weeks of vacation a year”.

Consumption and Buying Brings Us Fleeting Pleasure But Happiness Comes from Within

I have worked with pharmaceutical executives with Harvard MBAs that earn a quarter million dollars a year—before their annual bonus. At the same time I have taught reading to inner city adults who have only a kindergarten reading level and who have never held a job. Would you believe me if I told you that the executives were more miserable than our adult learners? What if I told you they were more miserable than the people of Turkey, Myanmar, or Laos who earn in one year what these executives earn in a handful of hours? Well they are both true. It’s not that money is evil, it’s that if that is your aim in life you will miss EVERYTHING that actually matters!

For thousands of years we have known that happiness and purpose are found in helping others and being part of a community but we continue to ignore the wisdom of our elders—both living and long deceased—in favor of our trivial external pursuits of pleasure.

Ask any mother who has given up a career to be a full-time mother and she’ll tell you that what really matters cannot be measured.

Pleasure vs Happiness

Let’s be clear, pleasure and happiness are not the same thing. Status, 2-Car Garage, Tesla, Omega, Apple, All-Inclusive, Business-Class, Shopping-Spree, Birthday Cake, Samsung—These are external things that bring people pleasure. None of them have ever brought a person happiness. People who constantly seek pleasure will never be happy—not only are they looking for the wrong thing but they are also using the wrong tools. External pursuits bring one pleasure, which is impermanent, never satisfying you long-term.

America’s Propaganda Machine is Easily the Worst in the Developed World

Our culture routinely demonizes and punishes people who do not drink the proverbial “American Kool-Aid”. If one does not value the acquisition of wealth then that person will most likely go down in history as an Anti-American threat. Despite the constitution’s right to free speech our country punished countless individuals who just had a different value system. One period that comes to mind was during the 1940s and 50s—during McCarthyism several states passed laws enacting life imprisonment and the death penalty as punishments against individuals who didn’t agree that the acquisition of wealth was the most important thing in life. People spending their manicured lives looking outwards render their inner state devoid of any real substance, thus leaving their fragile psyche vulnerable to fear what they do not understand. McCarthyism was a prime example of just that. Pure fear because deep down, under their shell of external pursuits, they were uneasy, scared, and deeply empty.

The Hippie Counterculture movement of the 60s comprised of a community of individuals that valued peace, love, and equality above all else. Propaganda has led to portrayals of hippies having being lazy, unemployed, unwashed commies with long hair. Many hippies were in fact successful business owners, teachers, pilots, surgeons, chefs, nurses, and engineers. Remember history is always written by the ‘winners’. A culture that values money over inner-peace has trivialized an entire and deeply profound movement into a negative and fundamentally inaccurate stereotype.

In America Having Money is More Important Than How It Is Earned

It’s important to note that in America making money is what’s important, how you earned it is inconsequential. Thus we have created a society valuing professional basketball players more than underpaid health aides. We have a country where bright minds are encouraged to go into fields such as technology and finance while being deterred from paths leading to teaching social/public work. We have a culture where our youth idolizes uneducated thugs rapping about cars, sex, parties, and money. Our culture is very good at looking at the end game, but at what expense? We have no idea how to live in the now! This is why we kill people, have depression, ADHD, suicide, violence, etc…it’s because in real life the end game NEVER COMES. The only time we are able to live is NOW! But hey, who wants to hear about an educated performer singing about working hard, helping others, and enjoying a simple weekend helping inner-city at-risk youths learn to garden? Fuck that, Americans want cars, money, fame, mansions—because they think that is happiness. When will they learn happiness comes from how you live and not what you have/get. It makes me sad.

A Yogi (Eastern Trained Mind) Searches Internally for Truth/Purpose

“Happiness is like peeing in your pants. Everyone can see it, but only you can feel the warmth.”

How to Find Happiness (Stop Looking Outwards)

Science is a great tool but it is just that, a tool. It can answer very discrete and specific questions, but when one takes a purely scientific mind it forces that person to lay down so many other useful tools. A scientist is too busy trying to define emotions through quantifying neurotransmitters, various bioactivity, external stressors, etc. to develop internal searching tools.

I won’t go into depth on what searching internally means and what happiness is because honestly most people reading this are too fragile and unwilling to accept what I have say. Also, once one realizes that searching within is where one truly find contentment your journey will become fully your own. I will leave you with a few things to contemplate however.

Slow down, focus on your breath, help others, stop caring about what others value, and focus on how you feel about yourself. Stop trying to change the world (because you are probably fucking it up for someone else)—focus on trying to leave the planet no worse than when you entered it. Stop letting other people’s opinions influence your values. Question each of your values often and ask yourself “does this idea/practice make me a better person?” Lose the idea that money or education actually make you a better person—they will increase opportunities in life however. Your body is your vehicle on this ride we call life, treat it well and make it last. Be proud of the work you do. Do not idolize anybody—you should listen to their ideas and internalize the ones that speak to you. However you must test everything out yourself—though make sure you have the critical reasoning skills to do so (a nod to science). Beliefs are as steadfast and illogical as religion. Ideas on the other hand are like rivers—they won’t simply change direction but over time they can carve out new paths leading you in different directions.

Karma is Real!

Karma has been used by the west to mean all types of things, most of them being outright wrong. Karma simply means “action, work or dead” in a spiritual sense it can also represent the “principle of cause and effect where intent and actions of an individual (cause) influence the future of that individual (effect)”. I will give you examples of Karma in action:

In the two examples below two people, Sylvie and DonnieT, had almost the same day but live vastly different lives. See their Karma at work!

A person, we will call her Sylvie, walks into a store and greets the clerk, assists an elderly shopper, and then buys a loaf of bread for a homeless person on the way out. She spends her free time working with sick animals and helping inner city adults learn to read. She always asks about other’s feelings and truly cares about people. Walking back from the store she finds a parking ticket on her car.

Sylvie has been calm and breathing slowly while engaging with the people around her all day. Her stress hormones are low and she feels a sense of belonging in the world. She finds joy in helping to reduce the suffering of those around her but knows her limits—she is only one person. She is happy with what she has and grateful for her friendships and community. She responds to the parking ticket by being frustrated but understands that she was at fault. She realizes the ticketing officer was just doing their job and she will try not to repeat the mistake again. She gets back in the car and tunes the radio to NPR as she looks forward to peaceful session of yoga this evening.

A person, we will call him DonnieT, walks into a store listening to his headphones while ignoring the clerk, he avoids the elderly shopper completely, and reprimands a homeless person on the way out. He spends his free time playing golf at his exclusive resort and eating at expensive restaurants. He never asks about other’s feelings and only cares about himself. Walking back from the store he finds a parking ticket on his car.

DonnieT has been stressed and breathing shallowly and rapidly throughout the day. He has been avoiding all but essential people. His stress hormones are high and he feels a sense of superiority in the world, though always a bit on edge. He finds pleasure in indulging in luxury and ignores the suffering of those around him and fantasizes about having more power and money. He covets what he does not have and finds little value for friendships and community. He responds to the parking ticket by calling the ticketing officer a “f**king idiot” and he refuses to accept any fault in the matter. He finds relief in that the officer is probably less educated and makes less money and DonnieT justifies this is why the officer wrote the ticket. He completely dismisses all responsibility and feels the law doesn’t apply because he doesn’t agree with the law. He gets back in the car and angrily dials his lawyer ready to fight the ticket and drives home agitated and stressed.

In this example you see how one’s Karma impacts one’s life.

A Key Walkaway:

Treat everyone (including animals) with kindness and compassion. It matters more than money!

And Ask Yourself: “Are you spending your time measuring or mattering?”

Do not forget to Pin this article and share with your friends if you liked reading it!

#what is yoga #the science of yoga #science vs yoga #Scientist vs yogi #western science vs eastern religion #east vs west #science vs religion #happiness vs pleasure #what is happiness #does money buy happiness #pleasure is not the answer

1 note · View note

hijavonline-blog · 6 years

Text

Jilbab oleh negara

U.S. After the song is finished, one of the three women asks the other women on the subway train to clap in honor of "having lived and fought all their lives against all kinds of discrimination, violence, humiliation, and insults." At the end of the video, one of the protestors is heard saying "Happy Women's Day to all of you."[108] That same day, Iran's supreme leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, made a speech during a gathering of religious poets in Tehran, posting a series of tweets in response to the series of peaceful hijab protests.[109]Khamenei defended the dress code, praising Islam for keeping women "modest" and in their "defined roles" such as educators and mothers. Retrieved 10 March 2011. ^ Euronews (08.10.2013) The headscarf ban in public institutions in Turkey was officially lifted ^ "Removing Hijabs and Discarding Prejudice: Yemeni Women Abroad". The New York Times. CBC News. "Under that burqa, lipstick and high heels". 13-43, London; New York: I.B. 15 June 2018. ^ "MEMO TO FORD: Tarek Fatah wants the burqa banned forever!". 2017-06-14. Married women cover their hair, most commonly in the form of a scarf, also in the form of hats, snoods, berets, or, sometimes, wigs.[159][160] Gaza Strip See also: Islamization of the Gaza Strip Arab woman and man chatting in 1890-the woman is wearing a hijab. Successful informal coercion of women by sectors of society to wear Islamic dress or hijab has been reported in the Gaza Strip where Mujama' al-Islami, the predecessor of Hamas, reportedly used a mixture of consent and coercion to "'restore' hijab" on urban-educated women in Gaza in the late 1970s and 1980s.[161] Similar behavior was displayed by Hamas during the First Intifada.[162] Hamas campaigned for the wearing of the hijab alongside other measures, including insisting that women stay at home, they should be segregated from men, and for the promotion of polygamy. 31. ^ Fernandez, Celine. For example, men are no longer allowed to be shirtless in public.[167] Northern Cyprus Muslim Turkish-Cypriot women wore traditional Islamic headscarves.[168] When leaving their homes, Muslim Cypriot women would cover their faces by pulling a corner of the headscarf across their nose and mouth, a custom recorded as early as 1769.[169] Their head dress...consists of a collection of various handkerchiefs of muslim, prettily shaped, so that they form a kind of casque of a palm's height, with a pendant behind to the end of which they attach another handkerchief folded in a triangle, and allowed to hang on their shoulders. BBC News. ^ "Covered women decreased, we do not look like Malaysia". www.facebook.com. www.amnesty.org. Des Moines.[204] As such, a ban on Islamic clothing is considered presumptively invalid by U.S. Retrieved on 28 August 2015. ^ "Hijab and the Maldives: stigma, shaming and the struggle to take it off". Many veiled women in Iran also find the compulsory imposition of the veil to be an insult. The Sydney Morning Herald. ^ Milani, Farzaneh (1992). (Law as passed.)" [L 219 Motion to amend the penal code. CNN. Retrieved 26 October 2017. ^ a b The Full Face Covering Debate: An Australian Perspective by Renae BARKER ^ "China bans burqas and 'abnormal' beards in Muslim province". ^ Mansfield, Katie (1 April 2017). Website of The Danish Parliament (in Danish). ^ Staff, Our Foreign (2018-05-31). Just a headscarfh Tehran Times. Washington Post. Retrieved 26 October 2017. ^ Correspondent, By Ramadan Al Sherbini, (20 January 2010). The Wall Street Journal. 21 July 2015. CBC. A&G research company. By 2012 some businesses had established bans on veils, and Egyptian elites supported these bans.[67] In 2016 and 2017 the Government of Egypt and parliament made moves to ban the burqa with leading politicians arguing the full-face veil is neither an Islamic tradition, nor required in the Koran.[68] Indonesia The traditional dress of Indonesian Minang women includes elaborate head-covering In Indonesia, the term jilbab is used without exception to refer to the hijab.[69] Under Indonesian national and regional law, female head-covering is entirely optional and not obligatory. In 2008, Indonesia had the single largest global population of Muslims. BBC News. Veils and Words: The Emerging Voices of Iranian Women Writers, Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, pp. "A Comparative Analysis on Hijab Wearing in Malaysian Muslimah Magazines" (PDF). HuffingtonPost.com. However, the Indonesian Constitution of Pancasila provides equal government protection for six state-sanctioned religions (namely Islam, Catholicism, Protestantism, Buddhism, Hinduism and Confucianism), without any one supreme or official state religion. Women Islamic street fashion in Bandung Some women may choose to wear a headscarf to be more "formal" or "religious", such as the jilbab or kerudung (a native tailored veil with a small, stiff visor). www.msn.com. "Varadkar rules out burqa ban, calls for women in priesthood - BusinessPost.ie". ^ http://www.rnw.nl/english/bulletin/ministers-vote-dutch-'burqa-ban' ^ "Norway proposes ban on full-face veils in schools". ^ "Norway votes in favour of banning burqa in schools and universities". ^ "Norway bans burqas and niqabs at schools". ^ "Marks & Spencer criticised for stocking hijabs in 'school essentials' section". 84, ISBNh9781889999265 ^ a b "The 'Girls of Revolution Street' Protest Iran's Compulsory Hijab Laws h Global Voices". The Guardian. Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ a b c "Feminist Trio Takes Defiant Song To Tehran's Subway, Video Goes Viral". 27 October 2017. Some non-Muslims, who would not be affected by a ban, see it as an issue of civil liberties, as a slippery slope leading to further restrictions on private life. "68% of Canadians want Quebec's face-coverings ban in their province". For example, in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas a minority of the women wear the full head-to-toe black burqa/chador while in the rest of the provinces, including Azad Kashmir, most of the women wear the dupatta (a long scarf that matches the woman's garments). Retrieved 31 October 2006. ^ Ranyah Sabry (17 April 2007) Egypt anchorwomen battle for hijab BBC News (BBC). ISSNh0307-1235. Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ Cunningham, Erin (2018-03-08). Quebec soccer referees also ejected an 11-year-old Ottawa girl while she was watching a match, which generated a public controversy.[187] In November 2013, a bill commonly referred to as the Quebec Charter of Values was introduced in the National Assembly of Quebec by the Parti Quhbhcois that would ban overt religious symbols in the Quebec public service. RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. The issue has different names in different countries, and "the veil" or "hijab" may be used as general terms for the debate, representing more than just the veil itself, or the concept of modesty embodied in hijab. Although the Balkans and Eastern Europe have indigenous Muslim populations, most Muslims in western Europe are members of immigrant communities. What Is Veilingh. Retrieved 26 October 2017. ^ Cypriot Attire Project, Cyprus History in Brief ^ "GIOVANNI MARITI. 3, 13-16, 130, 174-176, ISBNh9781859739242 ^ Fatemi, Nasrallah Saifpour (1989). "A Religious Tangle Over the Hair of Pious Hindus" (JULY 14, 2004). Retrieved in February 2009. ^ a b "Turkey-lifts-ban-on-headscarves-at-high-schools". There are reports of women being pressured into covering themselves by close relatives;[121] conversely, the American U.S. CBC. The women are filmed singing while grasping each other's hands and holding up pictures of what appears to be a photograph of a previous protest by a group of women's rights activists. Retrieved 2 December 2015. ^ a b Leong, Trinna. The song, "I am a Woman" calls upon women to join efforts, fight injustice, and create "another world" of "equality". The New York Times. In more formal settings such as weddings or religious celebrations like Eid, women wear the dirac, which is a long, light, diaphanous voile dress made of cotton or polyester that is worn over a full-length half-slip and a brassiere. Retrieved 19 July 2010. ^ Harriet Agerholm (1 September 2017). Riza Shah's Political Legitimacy and Social Base, 1921-1941" in Cronin, Stephanie: The Making of Modern Iran: State and Society under Riza Shah, 1921-1941, p. Burqas are mainly worn in the Swat Valley and tribal areas, however, they can be seen throughout the country including in urban population centers. Westerners are also expected to dress modestly too. Retrieved 18 October 2018. ^ "Maldives". "2. The Globe and Mail. ^ "Ontario, Quebec differ over soccer head scarf ban". The Christian Science Monitor. Newsweek. "Second Canadian judge suspends Quebec niqab ban". He also lashed out at the Western World for, in his view, leading its own women astray.[110] "The features of today's Iranian woman include modesty, chastity, eminence, protecting herself from abuse by men," Khamenei tweeted. Mehr News Agency. 2014-09-23. navideshahed.com. ^ a b c d Hoodfar, Homa (fall 1993). 113, 268, ISBNh9780934211789 ^ a b c d Chehabi, Houchang Esfandiar (2003): "11. The Great Satan vs. However, wearing Islamic attire to Christian relatives' funerals and weddings and entering the church is quite uncommon. Culturally to the Javanese majority, plain, Saudi-style hijab, the niqab or socially worse yet the indigenous peasant kerudung (known in North Sumatran languages as tudung) is considered vulgar, low-class and a faux pas - the traditional Javanese hijab are transparent, sheer, intricately brocaded or embroidered fine silk or lace tailored to match either their sarung or kebaya blouse. Young girls may also elect to wear the hijab publicly to avoid unwanted low-class male attention and molestation and thus display their respectability as "good Muslim girls": that is, they are not "easy" conquests.[70] Additionally, Islamic private school uniform code dictate that female students must wear the jilbab (commonly white or blue-grey, Indonesia's national secondary school colours), in addition to long-sleeved blouse and ankle-length skirt. Government bans on wearing the niqab on college campuses at the University of Cairo and during university exams in 2009 were overturned later.[62][63][64][65] Minister Hany Mahfouz Helal met protests by some human rights and Islamist groups. In 2010, Baher Ibrahim of The Guardian criticized the increasing trend for pre-pubescent girls in Egypt to wear the hijab.[66] Many Egyptians in the elite are opposed to hijab, believing it harms secularism. Retrieved 2 June 2008. ^ Munajjid (7 March 2008). ISSNh2229-872X. Women are not expected to wear a hijab or scarf in public,[126][127] but many women in Pakistan wear different forms of the hijhb and it varies for rural and different urban areas. InsideIndonesia.org. (2003). Retrieved 16 September 2010. ^ Guardian: Livingstone decries vilification of Islam, 20 November 2006. ^ Ipsos MORI Muslim Women Wearing Veils. ^ "Atlantic Council". (Some countries already have laws banning the wearing of masks in public, which can be applied to veils that conceal the face). During the course of this campaign women who chose not to wear the hijab were verbally and physically harassed, with the result that the hijab was being worn "just to avoid problems on the streets".[163] Following the takeover of the Gaza Strip in June 2007, Hamas has attempted to implement Islamic law in the Gaza Strip, mainly at schools, institutions and courts by imposing the Islamic dress or hijab on women.[164] Some of the Islamization efforts met resistance. But there are many Muslim women, including Saudis, who only wear a headscarf without the niqab, similarly to most non-Muslim women who use only a headscarf or no face covering at all. Kuwait Times. The Arab Weekly. Due to Sudan's vaguely worded Public Order law, there are no delineated parameters of what constitutes immodest dress. 30 December 2010. ^ a b Abdelhadi, Magdi Tunisia attacked over headscarves, BBC News, 26 September 2006. In the big cities, some women wear jeans and khakis, especially in casual settings, shopping malls and around picnic spots. Others would also argue that the increase of laws surrounding the banning of headscarves and other religious paraphernalia has led to an increase in not just the sales of headscarves and niqabs, but an increase in the current religiosity of the Muslim population in Europe: as both a product of and a reaction to westernization.[21] Employers in the EU may restrict the wearing of religious symbos if such regulations on appearance are applied in a consistent manner, according to a ruling by the European Court of Justice in a case involving two Belgian women.[22] The two women in the ECJ case were supported by the Open Society Justice Initiative, a group backed by financier George Soros.[22] Belgium As of 2015, Belgium has specific bans on face-covering dress, such as the Islamic niqab or burqa. MercuryNews.com. Veils and Words: The Emerging Voices of Iranian Women Writers, Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, p. The video then shows a man in a police uniform tackling the woman to the ground.[107] Shortly after the video went viral on Twitter, the Ministry of Interior (Iran) scolded police for using physical force against the woman protesting. Gazan anchorwomen interviewed by Associated Press said that they were frightened by the Swords of Truth statement.[166] In February 2011, Hamas banned the styling of women's hair, continuing its policy of enforcing Sharia upon women's clothing.[167] Hamas has imposed analogous restrictions on men as well as women. "Headscarf issue challenges Turkey". 106-107, 214-215, 218-220, ISBNh9780521473408 ^ Majd, Mohammad Gholi (2001). New York Times. 98-99, 104, ISBNh9780415774628 ^ a b Floor, Willem M. Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ "Iran lawyer raises concern over missing hijab protester". In the Indonesian Aceh province, women are required to wear the hijab[1] and all women are required to do so in Iran.[2] France has banned overt religious symbols, including many religious head coverings, in public schools and universities or government buildings.[3]Kosovo (since 2009),[4]Azerbaijan (since 2010[5]), Tunisia (since 1981,[6] partially lifted in 2011) and Turkey (gradually lifted)[7][8] are the only Muslim-majority countries which have banned the hijab in public schools and universities or government buildings, while Syria banned face veils in universities from July 2010.[9] In other Muslim states such as Morocco,[10] there have been complaints of restriction or discrimination against women who wear the hijab. 17 January 2018. The mainly Christian country said it was prompted to do so because of the attacks in Cameroon.[176] Asia-Pacific Australia Main article: Burka ban in Australia In September 2011, Australia's most populous state, New South Wales, passed the Identification Legislation Amendment Act 2011 to require a person to remove a face covering if asked by a state official. Archived from the original on 19 June 2010. Maria Omar, director of media relations for the Islamic Food and Nutrition Council of America (IFANCA), has advised Muslim women to avoid these complexes entirely. Retrieved 26 October 2017. ^ Finn, Christina. The Economist. The Washington Post. National Review. shame or morals". He had reportedly asked a student to take off her niqab when he spotted her in a classroom, and he told her that the niqab is a cultural tradition without Islamic importance.[56] It is widely believed that the hijab is becoming more of a fashion statement than a religious one in Egypt, with many Egyptian women, influenced by social peer pressure, wearing colorful, stylish head scarves along with western style clothing. "Why Morocco's burqa ban is more than just a security measure". The Veil in Their Minds and On Our Heads: The Persistence of Colonial Images of Muslim Women, Resources for feminist research (RFR) / Documentation sur la recherche fhministe (DRF), Vol. In private, in governmental institutions and universities they can wear manteaux which could be long or short with a scarf covering the head. 19 July 2010. the Crescent in Europe". The proposed ban was extremely controversial, with both sides of the political spectrum being split on the issue, some people arguing that the law goes against religious freedom and is racist because it affects mostly Muslim women and Jewish men. In 2010, a ban on face covering,[32] targeting especially women wearing chador and burqa, was adopted by the French Parliament. Retrieved 9 October 2009. ^ a b "A look at the wearing of veils, and disputes on the issue, across the Muslim world". When describing the West, he said, "the most sought after characteristics of a #woman involve her ability to physically attract men."[111] Iraq In south Iraq, particularly in the Shi'a holy cities of Najaf and Karbala, custom requires women to wear hijab. 8 October 2009. ^ "EGYPT: Controversial ban on niqab in dorms - University World News". ^ "Egypt court upholds niqab ban for university examinations". Yemeni women who choose to not cover themselves with any Islamic headscarf are at risk of facing oppression.[156] When Nobel Peace Laureate Tawakkol Karman was asked about her hijab by journalists and how it is not proportionate with her level of intellect and education, she replied, "Man in early times was almost naked, and as his intellect evolved he started wearing clothes. www.iranhrdc.org. It's the removal of clothes again that is regressive back to ancient times."[157] Israel Further information: Islam in Israel Mannequins with traditional Muslim veil and hoods at Tira's (Israel) Saturday's market In July 2010, some Israeli lawmakers and women's rights activists proposed a bill to the Knesset banning face-covering veils. CNN. When Palestinian Supreme Court Justice Abdel Raouf Al-Halabi ordered women lawyers to wear headscarves and caftans in court, attorneys contacted satellite television stations including Al-Arabiya to protest, causing Hamas's Justice Ministry to cancel the directive.[165] In 2007, the Islamic group Swords of Truth threatened to behead female TV broadcasters if they didn't wear the hijab. "Head scarves to topple secular Turkeyh". The University of North Carolina Press (Kindle edition). Hijab dar Iran az Enqelab-e Eslami ta payan Jang-e Tahmili [Hijab in Iran from the Islamic Revolution to the end of the Imposed war] (Persian), Faslnamah-e Takhassusi-ye Banuvan-e Shi'ah [Quarterly Journal of Shiite Women], Qom: Muassasah-e Shi'ah Shinasi, ISSNh1735-4730 ^ a b c d e f g Milani, Farzaneh (1992). Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ "On Wednesday we wear white: Women in Iran challenge compulsory hijab". News24.com. Berkeley: University of California Press. Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ "Iranian Police Arrest 29 Women Protesting Against Veiling Law". Tauris, p. CBC News. The government described the headscarf as a sectarian form of dress which came uninvited to the country.[144] As of 14 January 2011, after the Tunisian revolution took place,[145] the headscarf was authorized and the ban lifted. "Integration: hsterreich stellt Tragen von Burka und Nikab unter Strafe". Retrieved 2011-12-21. ^ "Muslim group calls for burka ban". Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ "Publicradio.org". Retrieved 27 July 2011. ^ "Mapping the Global Muslim Population". Pakistan has no laws banning or enforcing the hijhb. In Pakistan, most women wear shalwar kameez, a tunic top and baggy or skintight trouser set which covers their legs and body. This Acehnese Hukum Syariah and the reputedly over-bearing "Morality Police" who enforce its (Aceh-only) mandatory public wearing are the subject of fierce debate, especially with regard to its validity vis-a-vis the Constitution among Acehnese male and female Muslim academics, Acehnese male and female politicians and female rights advocates. Female police officers are not allowed to wear hijab, except in Aceh. RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. 26 February 2007. 6 (1): 79-96. "Woman faces whipping over refusal to cover hair in Sudan". ^ "Syria bans face veils at universities". pp.h44-56. The first article of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States protects people against discrimination based on several matters including religion, ethnic origin and national origin.[200] Article 6 of the Constitution grants Libertad de Expresihn (freedom of expression) to all Mexicans which includes the way people choose to dress.[200] The Muslim community is a minority; according to the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life there were about 3,700 Muslims in Mexico as of 2010, representing 0.003 percent of the total population.[201] There is an almost complete lack of knowledge of Islam in Mexico, and any interest is more out of curiosity and tolerance than hatred or racism.[202] Some Muslims suggest that it is easier to fit in if they are lax with the rules of their religion, for example by wearing regular clothing.[203] Muslim women's clothing can vary from non-Muslim clothing to a hijab or a chador. United States See also: Islam in the United States The people of the United States have a firm First Amendment protection of freedom of speech from government interference that explicitly includes clothing items, as described by Supreme Court cases such as Tinker v. "1. www.expatwoman.com. Great Britain and Reza Shah: The Plunder of Iran, 1921-1941, Gainesville: University Press of Florida, p. Huffington Post. "Unveiled: Afghan women past and present". The official stated that the face veils ran counter to secular and academic principles of Syria.[142] Tajikistan Tajik woman wearing a Hijabs In 2017 the government of Tajikistan passed a law requiring people to "stick to traditional national clothes and culture", which has been widely seen as an attempt to prevent women from wearing Islamic clothing, in particular the style of headscarf wrapped under the chin, in contrast to the traditional Tajik headscarf tied behind the head.[143] Tunisia Tunisian authorities say they are encouraging women, instead, to "wear modest dress in line with Tunisian traditions", i.e. 108, 152, ISBNh9780226041476 ^ Ramezani, Reza (2008). (Law as passed.)] (PDF). 160-180, Los Angeles: Society of the Friends of the Persian Culture, ISSNh0742-8014 ^ Beeman, William Orman (2008). Note- Women who appear in public places and roads without wearing an Islamic hijab, shall be sentenced to ten days to two months' imprisonment or a fine of fifty thousand to five hundred Rials."[105] After this change, any woman found without an islamic veil in a public space, will be charged according to article 639 of the Islamic Penal Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran, which states: "The following individuals shall be sentenced to one year to ten years imprisonment and in respect to paragraph (A), in addition to the punishment provided, the relevant place shall be closed temporarily at the discretion of the court. BBC News. In some areas, the hijab has become a formal part of school uniforms. "Ban on outdoor music concerts in West Aceh due to Sharia law". 203-221, London; New York: Routledge; Taylor & Francis, ISBNh9780415302845 ^ Bullock, Katherine (2002). 2016-04-13. ISSNh0190-8286. In 2013, the headscarf ban in public institutions was lifted through a decree, even though the ban officially stands through court decisions.[155] The ban on wearing hijab in high schools was lifted in 2014.[8] Yemen Although there is no dress code that legally forces veiling upon women in Yemen, the abaya and niqab are considered social norms in Yemen and are imposed on girls at a young age. Hijab dar Iran, dar doure-ye Pahlavi-ye dovvom [Hijab in Iran, the second Pahlavi era] (Persian), Faslnamah-e Takhassusi-ye Banuvan-e Shi'ah [Quarterly Journal of Shiite Women], Qom: Muassasah-e Shi'ah Shinasi, ISSNh1735-4730 ^ a b Algar, Hamid (2001). 2018-01-22. Travels in the Island of Cyprus. Echols, Hassan Shadily, An English-Indonesian dictionary: Kamus Inggris-Indonesia Kamus Inggris-Indonesia University Press: 1975, ISBNh0-8014-9859-7, 660 pages ^ S. NJ.com. "France's burqa ban upheld by human rights court". Jerusalem Post. ^ RAI, SARITHA (2004). 2018-02-25. Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ a b "Iran Human Rights Documentation Center - Islamic Penal Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran - Book Five". Turbans have been worn by Cypriot men since ancient times and were recorded by Herodotus, during the Persian rule of the island, to demonstrate their "oriental" customs compared to Greeks.[171] Following the globalisation of the island, however, many younger Sunni Muslim Turkish-Cypriots abandoned wearing traditional dress, such as headscarves.[172] Yet they are still worn by older Muslim Cypriot women. Until the removal of ban on headscarf in universities in Turkey in 2008,[173] women from Turkey moved to study in Northern Cyprus since many universities there did not apply any ban on headscarf.[174] Whilst many Turkish Cypriot women no longer wear headscarves, recent immigrants from Turkey, settled in villages in northern Cyprus, do.[175] Former USSR The word "hijab" was used only for the middle-eastern style of hijab, and such style of hijab was not commonly worn by Muslims there until the fall of the USSR. Retrieved on 13 February 2009. ^ "Headscarf ban sparks debate over Kosovo's identity" news.bbc.co.uk 24 August 2010. [...] I believe in the freedom of religion. Some women decide to wear something colloquially known as the "sports hijab". "Turkey's high court overrules government on head scarves". Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ "Khamenei.ir (@khamenei_ir) | Twitter". State and Society under Reza Shah" in Atabaki, Touraj; Zhrcher, Erik-Jan: Men of Order: Authoritarian Modernisation in Turkey and Iran, 1918-1942, p. Retrieved 26 October 2017 - via www.Welt.de. ^ "Burqa ban takes effect in Austria". Pakistani society observes traditional dress customs and it is advisable for women to wear long skirts, trousers which cover majority of legs and tops which don't show a lot of cleavage in public. The Guardian. n-tv.de. Retrieved 1 July 2014. ^ Chrisafis, Angelique (2016-04-13). Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ Marfuqi, Kitab ul Mar'ah fil Ahkam, pg 133 ^ Abdullah Atif Samih (7 March toko hijab temanggung 2008). Retrieved 26 October 2017. ^ Bulgaria the latest European country to ban the burqa and niqab in public places, Smh.com.au: accessed 5 December 2016. ^ "Denmark is about to ban the burqa". ^ Pilditch, David (9 October 2017). (The word is used with that meaning in other contexts, e.g. "Why Some Women Wear a Hijab and Some Don't" (Archive). 28, London; New York: I.B. 2018-10-12. "Peace In Afghanistan At What Cost To Its Womenh". In 2004, France passed a law banning "symbols or clothes through which students conspicuously display their religious affiliation" (including hijab) in public primary schools, middle schools, and secondary schools,[3] but this law does not concern universities (in French universities, applicable legislation grants students freedom of expression as long as public order is preserved[17]). On Tuesday 11 July 2017 the European Court of Human Rights upheld Belgium's ban on burqas and full-face Islamic veils. "Cairo's 'hijab-free' zones trigger cries of hypocrisy." The Globe and Mail. Retrieved on 28 August 2015. ^ a b c Boo, Su-lyn. 1, p. Retrieved 14 July 2010. ^ LaFranchi, Howard (23 June 2009). Agence France-Presse. Global Voices. The Telegraph. Express.co.uk. There has been some unofficial relaxation of the ban under governments led by the conservative party AKP in recent years,[57] for example the current government of the AKP is willing to lift the ban in universities, however the new law was upheld by the constitutional court. Some researchers claim that just about 35% of Turkish women cover their heads; even though that is a low number for a mostly Muslim country. Sarasota Herald-Tribune (114): 28. "A Saudi woman tweeted a photo of herself without a hijab. al madaniya. "Canadian judge suspends Quebec niqab ban". Darul Ifta. Iran: A Country Study, 5th ed, Area handbook series, Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, p. "Malaysian Women Face Rising Pressure From Muslim 'Fashion Police'" (Archive). Agriculture in Qajar Iran, Washington, DC: Mage Publishers, p. Ban the Burqa Tooh". Flight attendants are not allowed to wear hijab except during flights to the Middle East. Compounding the friction and often anger toward baju Arab (Arab clothes), is the ongoing physical and emotional abuse of Indonesian women in Saudi Arabia, as guest workers, commonly maids or as Hajja pilgrims and Saudi Wahhabi intolerance for non-Saudi dress code has given rise to mass protests and fierce Indonesian debate up to the highest levels of government about boycotting Saudi Arabia - especially the profitable all Hajj pilgrimage - as many high-status women have been physically assaulted by Saudi morality police for non-conforming head-wear or even applying lip-balm - leading some to comment on the post-pan Arabist repressiveness of certain Arab nations due to excessively rigid, narrow and erroneous interpretation of Sharia law.[71][72] Iran An Iranian girl wearing a headscarf (rusari) In Iran, since the 1979 Iranian revolution, the Hijab has become compulsory. "Los musulmanes de Monterrey (Mhxico) - Webislam". ^ juntaislamica.com. According to the Jerusalem Post, the measure is generally "regarded as highly unlikely to become law." Hanna Kehat, founder of the Jewish women's rights group Kolech, criticized a ban and also commented "[f]ashion also often oppresses women with norms which lead to anorexia." Eilat Maoz, general coordinator for the Coalition of Women for Peace, referred to a ban as "a joke" that would constitute "racism".[158] In Israel, orthodox Jews dress modestly by keeping most of their skin covered. 5-18, Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto (OISE), ISSNh0707-8412 ^ a b c Paidar, Parvin (1995): Women and the Political Process in Twentieth-Century Iran, Cambridge Middle East studies, Vol. That cultural headscarf is used by women that work under the sun to protect their heads from sunburn.[146] This is often misinterpreted by some, who instead assume that the headscarf in Turkish research only represents the hijab and not the cultural derivation. Retrieved 26 October 2017. ^ Headscarf ban sparks debate over Kosovo's identity news.bbc.co.uk 24 August 2010. An outfit colloquially known as the burqini allows Muslim women to swim without displaying any significant amount of skin.[207] Compared to Western Europe, there have been relatively few controversies surrounding the hijab in everyday life, and Muslim garb is commonly seen in major US cities. Counterpunch.org. Legifrance.gouv.fr. The veilh: women writers on its history, lore, and politics. In Baghdad and Iraqi Kurdistan, women are free to choose whether or not to wear the hijab. Jordan There are no laws requiring the wearing of headscarves nor any banning such from any public institution. Retrieved 14 July 2010. ^ "Wayback Machine" (PDF). U.S. "2. Retrieved 26 October 2017. ^ "Aceh-eye.org". ^ Ramezani, Reza (2010). These bans also cover Islamic headscarves, which in some other countries are seen as less controversial, although law court staff in the Netherlands are also forbidden to wear Islamic headscarves on grounds of 'state neutrality'. An apparently less politicised argument is that in specific professions (teaching), a ban on "veils" (niqab) is justified, since face-to-face communication and eye-contact is required. Vest tops, bikinis and mini-skirts in public are considered immodest and are thus a social taboo.[126][127] Saudi Arabia Saudi woman wearing a Niqab. While most versions of Islamic law suggests that women should dress modestly, Saudi Arabian dress code legally requires all women, local and foreign, to wear an abaya, a typically black garment that covers everything except the face, hands, and feet, in public.[128][129] According to most Saudi Salafi scholars, a woman is to cover her entire body, including her face and hands, in front of unrelated men. Islam Q&A. A judgment from the then-Supreme Court of Malaysia in 1994 cites that the niqab, or purdah, "has nothing to do with (a woman's) constitutional right to profess and practise her Muslim religion", because Islam does not make it obligatory to cover the face.[115] Although wearing the hijab, or tudung, is not mandatory for women in Malaysia, some government buildings enforce within their premises a dress code which bans women, Muslim and non-Muslim, from entering while wearing "revealing clothes".[116][117] As of 2013 most Muslim Malaysian women wear the tudung, a type of hijab. socio-political commentators such as Mona Charen of National Review.[205] Journalist Howard LaFranchi of The Christian Science Monitor has referred to "the traditional American respect for different cultural communities and religions under the broad umbrella of universal freedoms" as forbidding the banning of Islamic dress. tudung saji, a dish cover for food.) Muslim women may freely choose whether or not to wear the headscarf. Retrieved 28 October 2017. ^ "FATAH: The Cross vs. 19, 34-37, ISBNh9780815602668 In the early 20th century, Iranians associated not covering the hair as something rural, nomadic, poor and non-Iranian. On 8 January 1936[81], Reza Shah issued a decree, banning all veils.[82][74][83][84][85] Many types of male traditional clothing were also banned in order that "Westerners now wouldn't laugh at us",[86][87][88] the ban humiliated and alienated many Iranian women.[89][75][79][83][89][86][87][88] To enforce this decree, police were ordered to physically remove the veil off of any woman who wore it in public. A public opinion poll in London showed that 75 percent of Londoners support "the right of all persons to dress in accordance with their religious beliefs".[18] In another poll in the United Kingdom by Ipsos MORI, 61 percent agreed that "Muslim women are segregating themselves" by wearing a veil, yet 77 percent thought they should have the right to wear it.[19] In a later FT-Harris poll conducted in 2010 after the French ban on face-covering went into effect, an overwhelming majority in Italy, Spain, Germany and the UK supported passing such bans in their own countries.[20] The headscarf is perceived to be a symbol of the clash of civilizations by many. 24 January 2014. Hence, the vast majority of traditional Saudi women are expected to cover their faces in public.[130][131][132][133][134] The Saudi niqhb usually leaves a long open slot for the eyes; the slot is held together by a string or narrow strip of cloth.[135] Many also have two or more sheer layers attached to the upper band, which can be worn flipped down to cover the eyes. Retrieved 2018-07-22. ^ Abedi, Maham (27 October 2017). Retrieved 2018-08-04. ^ a b The Telegraph Netherlands to Ban the Burka ^ WELT, DIE (16 May 2017). 18 April 2011. 23, p. What I am today and what I'm wearing represents the highest level of thought and civilization that man has achieved, and is not regressive. Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. Retrieved 26 October 2017. ^ Eicher, Joanne Bubolz, Dress and Ethnicity: Change Across Space and Time, p.35, 1995 ^ Irwin, Elizabeth K., Reading Herodotus: A Study of the Logoi in Book 5 of Herodotus' Histories, p. L811-1 h2" (in French). "Tudung industry in Malaysia: Cashing in on conservative Islam" (Archive). 17 October 2006. ^ "Education Code. Map current as of 2018 The word hijab refers to both the head-covering traditionally worn by some Muslim women and Islamic styles of dress in general. The garment has different legal and cultural status in various countries. Angus Reid. "We will cut throats, and from vein to vein, if needed to protect the spirit and moral of this nation," their statement said. Retrieved 14 July 2010. ^ "Paris pool bans Muslim woman in 'burqini'". Retrieved 2013-04-24. ^ "20/21 May 2006 "Uproar in Turkey Over the Hijab." Headscarf By Michael Dickinson". "Iran's supreme leader in tweetstorm: Western countries lead women to 'deviant lifestyle'". Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ a b c d Gerretsen, Isabelle (2018-02-01). 66, 252-253, 256, 260, ISBNh9780520255180 ^ a b Keddie, Nikki R. Following the attacks, since 16 July, Cameroon banned the wearing of full-face Islamic veils, including the burqa, in the Far North region. International Herald Tribune. News. The Telegraph. 15 June 2018. ^ "Wife of jailed Saudi blogger Raif Badawi calls for burqa ban in Ontario". ^ "Ensaf Haidar: Ban The Burqa - The Post Millennial". 21 April 2016. "Could the U.S. Women in public places usually wear abaya which is a long black cloth that covers the whole body except the face and the hands, in addition to the scarf that only covers the hair. Retrieved 2008-08-04. ^ Clark-Flory, Tracy (2007-04-23). Twitter. Married women tend to sport head-scarves referred to as shash, and also often cover their upper body with a shawl known as garbasaar. Global News. Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ "Tawakkul Karman - First Arab Woman and Youngest Nobel Peace Laureate". ^ "MKs discuss France-like burka ban". International Business Times UK. Depending on the societal status and city, a loose dupatta scarf is worn around the shoulders and upper chest or just on the shoulder, or isn't used at all. The Malay Mail. 3/4, p. 8 October 2009. In the country, it is negatively associated with Salafist political activism.[56][57] There has been some restrictions on wearing the hijab by the government, which views hijab as a political symbol. the Mad Mullahs: How the United States and Iran Demonize Each Other, 2nd ed, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, p. "Denmark becomes latest European country to ban full Islamic face veil in public spaces". "Articles about niqab". They might wear boushiya. Such formal or cultural Muslim events may include official governmental events, funerals, circumcision (sunatan) ceremonies or weddings. the Guardian. ^ "L 219 Forslag til lov om hndring af straffeloven. The "Burqa ban", was challenged and taken to the European Court of Human Rights which upheld the law on 1 July 2014, accepting the argument of the French government that the law was based on "a certain idea of living together".[33] A broader ban on hijab is regularly proposed by conservative and right-wing politicians.[34] Such a broader ban would include a ban in public universities but presidents of universities and most student unions oppose such a ban.[35] Germany In 2017, a ban on face-covering clothing for soldiers and state workers during work was approved by German parliament.[36] Republic of Ireland In 2018, Taoiseach (prime minister) Leo Varadkar ruled out a burka ban in the Republic of Ireland, saying " I don't like it but I think people are entitled to wear what they want to wear. Bustle. State Department's annual International Religious Freedom Report in 2007 referenced one instance in which a female student was restricted from attending school for wearing a headscarf, despite civil servants wearing them at work without issue.[122][123] Morocco The headscarf is not encouraged by governmental institutions, and generally frowned upon by urban middle and higher classes but it is not forbidden by law. Retrieved 2008-08-04. ^ a b Ayman, Zehra; Knickmeyer, Ellen. Retrieved 26 December 2016. ^ "Syria bans face veils at universities". The ruling was widely seen as a victory for Turks who claim this maintains Turkey's separation of state and religion. Retrieved 2018-07-22. ^ Paperny, Anna Mehler. CNN. ^ a b c Amer, Sahar (2014). I don't agree with the doctrine of every religion or necessarily any religion, but I do believe in the freedom of religion.[37][38] Latvia In 2016, a ban on the wearing of face-covering Islamic clothing in public was adopted by the Latvian parliament, despite such garments being rarely worn in Latvia.[11] Netherlands The Dutch government parliament in January 2012 enacted a ban on face-covering clothing, popularly described as the "burqa ban".[39][23] Norway In autumn 2017, Norway government adopted a law prohibiting people to wear "attire and clothing masking the face in such a way that it impairs recognizability" in schools and in universities.[40] In 2018 the Norway parliament voted to ban the burqa in schools and universities.[41][42] United Kingdom In the UK hijabs are worn by children from ages 6-8.[43][44] According to retail chain Marks & Spencer, the hijabs they sell as part of the school uniform will fit a child aged 3.[45] Muslim world Dress codes for women in Muslim countries Algeria In 2018, the government passed a law banning the wearing of full face-veils, called burqas or niqabs, for women at work.[46][47][48] Afghanistan Female art students in Afghanistan There is no hijab enforcement in Afghanistan, but it is predominantly worn. The law states: "Whoever does in a public place an indecent act or an act contrary to public morals or wears an obscene outfit or contrary to public morals or causing an annoyance to public feelings shall be punished with flogging which may not exceed forty lashes or with fine or with both."[140] In 2013, the case of Amira Osman Hamid came to international attention when she chose to expose her hair in public, in opposition to the nation's public-order laws.[141] Syria In 2010, Ghiyath Barakat, Syria's minister of higher education, announced a ban on women wearing full-face veils at universities. 19, 34-37, ISBNh9780815602668 ^ a b c Heath, Jennifer (2008). 1, Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press, p. The Telegraph. "BURKA BOMBSHELL: Muslim country to ban the veil 'because it is NOT Islamic'". On 5 June 2008, the Constitutional Court of Turkey reinstated the ban on constitutional grounds of the secularity of the state.[154] Headscarves had become a focal point of the conflict between the ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) and the secularist establishment. Retrieved 13 August 2010. ^ "Muslim jail employee fired for wearing headscarf loses appeal". "Denmark burka ban: Scandinavian country set to become latest to ban full-face veils". ^ Staff and agencies (31 May 2018). Bloomberg.com. Retrieved on 13 February 2009. ^ Correspondent, By Ramadan Al Sherbini, (22 October 2006). www.CyprusExplorer.GlobalFolio.net. Retrieved on 13 February 2009. ^ a b "A European government has banned Islamic face veils despite them being worn by just three women". Jump to navigation Jump to search A map of countries with a burqa ban. Retrieved 14 July 2010. ^ Joan, Bryden (27 October 2007). Map current as of 2018 hhNational ban - country bans women from wearing full-face veils in public hhLocal ban - cities or regions ban full-face veils hhPartial ban - government bans full-face veils in some locations European Commissioner Franco Frattini said in November 2006, that he did not favour a ban on the burqa.[15] This is apparently the first official statement on the issue of prohibition of Islamic dress from the European Commission, the executive of the European Union. Islamic dress is also seen as a symbol of the existence of parallel societies, and the failure of integration: in 2006 British Prime Minister Tony Blair described the face veil as a "mark of separation".[16] Proposals to ban hijab may be linked to other related cultural prohibitions: the Dutch politician Geert Wilders proposed a ban on hijab, on Islamic schools, the Quran, on new mosques, and on non-western immigration. In France and Turkey, the emphasis is on the secular nature of the state, and the symbolic nature of the Islamic dress. "New bill to ban veiled voters". LExpress.fr (in French). Retrieved 9 August 2018. ^ Reformatorisch dagblad: Brussel tegen boerkaverbod, 30 November 2006. ^ Blair's concerns over face veils BBC News Online. When they go out of doors modesty requires that they should take a corner and pull it in front to cover the chin, mouth and nose. 5/2001, as enacted per Acehnese plebiscite (in favour). "Veil war breaks out on Egypt university campus". ^ "The Islamic Network for Woman and Families". ^ "Egypt: Niqab Ban Stirs Controversy h Global Voices". Most men covered their heads with either a headscarf (similar to a wrapped keffiyeh, "a form of turban"[170]) or a fez. The use of the headscarf increased during the 1980s. Retrieved on 28 August 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2017. ^ a b "Clothing in Pakistan and other Local Customs Reviews". ^ a b "A Traveling Girl's Guide to Clothing in Muslim Countries". ^ "Saudi Arabia's dress code for women". Islamic schools must by law provide access to Christians (and vice versa Catholic and Protestant schools allow Muslim students) and it is to be worn by Christian students who attend Muslim school, and its use by Muslim students is not objected to in Christian schools. Many nuns refer to their habit as a jilbab, perhaps out of the colloquial use of the term to refer to any religious head covering. The sole exception where jilbab is mandatory is in Aceh Province, under Islamic Sharia-based Law No 18/2001, granting Aceh special autonomy and through its own Regional Legislative body Regulation Nr. The New York Times. Saudi women have been arrested for failing to wear a veil.[138] Somalia Young Somali women wearing the hijab. During regular, day-to-day activities, Somali women usually wear the guntiino, a long stretch of cloth tied over the shoulder and draped around the waist. The greater part of the hair remains under the ornaments mentioned above, except on the forehead where it is divided into two locks, which are led along the temples to the ears, and the ends are allowed to hang loose behind over the shoulders. -- Giovanni Mariti, Travels in the Island of Cyprus, 1769 In accordance with the islands' strict moral code, Turkish Cypriot women also wore long skirts or pantaloons in order to cover the soles of their feet. (2005). According to The New York Times, as of 2007 about 90 percent of Egyptian women currently wear a headscarf.[55] Small numbers of women wear the niqab. Retrieved 2010-02-10. ^ a b "Fatwa stirs heated debate over face-veiling in Kuwait". This argument has featured prominently in judgments in Britain and the Netherlands, after students or teachers were banned from wearing face-covering clothing. Public and political response to such prohibition proposals is complex, since by definition they mean that the government decides on individual clothing. ABC-CLIO, 22 June 2009. NBC News. ^ "Afghan Women Still Bound by Burka". ^ United Press Service (UP) (26 January 1958). The usage of the tudung sharply increased after the 1970s.[117] as religious conservatism among Malay people in both Malaysia and Singapore increased.[119] Several members of the Kelantan ulama in the 1960s believed the hijab was not mandatory.[118] By 2015 the Malaysian ulama believed this previous 'fatwa' was un-Islamic.[120] By 2015 Malaysia had a fashion industry related to the tudung.[118] Maldives There are no official laws in the Constitution of the Maldives that require women to cover their heads, but Maldivian women commonly wear a hijab and niqab in public. Princeton University Press.External links Media related to Hijabs by country at Wikimedia Commons Burqa ban: What it means for the West - TCN News VEIL Project - Values, Equality and Differences in Liberal Democracies. [23] "Liebende Eltern (Loving parents)", painting about the discussion about the face-covering Islamic clothing austrian, showing chancellor Sebastian Kurz, vice chancellor Heinz-Christian Strache and a little muslim child by Matthias Laurenz Grhff (2018) Austria In 2017, a legal ban on face-covering Islamic clothing was adopted by the Austrian parliament.[24][25] Bulgaria In 2016, a ban on the wearing of face-covering Islamic clothing in public was adopted by the Bulgarian parliament.[26] Denmark In autumn 2017, the Danish government considered adopting a law prohibiting people to wear "attire and clothing masking the face in such a way that it impairs recognizability".[27][28] The proposal was met with some support in the parliament and was passed into law on 31 May 2018, becoming h 134 c of the Danish Penal Code, stating that "[a]ny person who in a public place wears a item of clothing that covers said person's face shall be liable to a fine" with an exception for coverings that serve "a creditable purpose" (e.g. Unmarried or young women, however, do not always cover their heads. Retrieved 26 October 2017 - via www.WashingtonPost.com. ^ Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi, Culture and Customs of Somalia, (Greenwood Press: 2001), p.117-118. ^ "Headscarf incident in Sudan highlights a global trend". "Do women have to wear niqaabh". 28, 116-117, ISBNh9780844411873 ^ a b c d e Katouzian, Homa (2003). Debates about Muslim Headscarves in Europe (University of Vienna) Q&A: Muslim headscarves from BBC News Shabina Begum case: School wins Muslim dress appeal (22 March 2006) The Veil and the British Male Elite Behind the Scarfed Law, There is Fear - Alain BadiouvteIslamic female dressTypes Abaya Battoulah Boshiya Burqa Burkini harhaf Chador Dupatta Haik Hijab Jilbhb Khimar Niqhb Paranji Shayla Tudong YashmakBy country Australia Canada Egypt France Indonesia Iran Malaysia Pakistan Saudi Arabia Taliban Afghanistan TurkeyConcepts Andaruni Awrah Gender segregation Purdah Zenana Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.phphtitle=Hijab_by_country&oldid=866610434" . "Iran: 29 women arrested over anti-hijab protests inspired by 'girl of Enghelab Street'". Wednesday 29 February 2012. She sued the state of Florida for religious discrimination, though her case was eventually thrown out. In January 2017, the New Jersey Superior Court, Appellate Division in Camden County dismissed two suits filed by Linda Tisby in summer 2015 against her former employer, the county's Department of Corrections. Retrieved 2018-06-02. ^ LOI nh 2010-1192 du 11 octobre 2010 interdisant la dissimulation du visage dans l'espace public, 11 October 2010, retrieved 2018-01-12 ^ Willsher, Kim (1 July 2014). 5 ^ a b "Reality Check: Did EU court ban Islamic headscarf at workh". A. Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ "Nasrin Sotoudeh hhhhh hhhhh". 7, n. Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ a b "Iran Chides Police for Using Force Against Female Veil Protester". 1984-01-26. Ban on Head Scarves Voted Out in Turkey: Parliament Lifts 80-Year-Old Restriction on University Attire. Published 2011-12-12. Retrieved 27 July 2011. ^ juntaislamica.com. Pitt.edu. "Why This One Video Of A Woman Protesting In Iran Is Going Viral". Retrieved 2015-07-18. ^ "Chad arrests five and bans burqa after suicide bombings". www.crin.org. ^ "BBC NEWS - Africa - Morocco moves to drop headscarf". ^ Ennaji, Moha. The Banning of the Veil and Its Consequences" in Cronin, Stephanie: The Making of Modern Iran: State and Society under Riza Shah, 1921-1941, p. 19 July 2010 - via www.bbc.co.uk. ^ Richard Hamilton (6 October 2006) Morocco moves to drop headscarf BBC News (BBC). "What's That You're Wearingh A Guide to Muslim Veils". 90-91, ISBNh9781565642874 ^ "How did Reza Pahlavi's dictatorship affect Iranian womenh". The exception is when visiting a mosque, where the tudung must be worn; this requirement also includes non-Muslims. Although headscarves are permitted in government institutions, public servants are prohibited from wearing the full-facial veil or niqab. Department of State. ^ "MALDIVES: Children's rights in the Special Procedures' reports | CRIN". Cyprus Explorer". 2008-02-11. ^ Sabrina Tavernise (5 June 2008). 273, 2007 ^ Athanasiadis, Iason, "Northern Cyprus espouses 'Islam lite'", Daily Star ^ Haber KKTC, 7 June 2011 Ban on headscarf was removed in Turkey ^ Tavernise, Sabrina, "Under a Scarf, a Turkish Lawyer Fighting to Wear It", The New York Times, 9 February 2008 ^ Cyprus: Culture and language, Mephisto ^ a b c Cameroon bans Islamic face veil after suicide bombings, 16 July 2015. "Tajikstan passes law 'to stop Muslim women wearing hijabs'". TheConversation.com. 15-37, London; New York: Routledge; Taylor & Francis, ISBNh9780415302845 ^ a b c d e Katouzian, Homa (2004). Iranian women are required to wear loose-fitting clothing and a headscarf in public.[73][74] This partially changed in the Middle Ages after the arrival of the Turkic nomadic tribes from Central Asia, whose women didn't wear headscarves.[75][76] However, after the Safavid centralization in the 16th century, the headscarf became defined as the standard head dress for women in urban areas all around the Iranian Empire.[77] Exceptions to this were seen only in the villages and among nomadic tribes,[75][76][78][79][80] such as Qashqai. Page A17. ^ Derakhshandeh, Mehran. 2007-09-28. In 2005, a schoolbook for basic religious education was heavily criticized for picturing female children with headscarves, and later the picture of the little girl with the Islamic headscarf was removed from the school books.[124] The headscarf is strongly and implicitly forbidden in Morocco's military and the police. In January 2017 Morocco banned the manufacturing, marketing and sale of the burqa.[125] Pakistan Benazir Bhutto, former Prime Minister of Pakistan, wore a duppatta scarf. 9 October 2009. ^ "How You See It: Egyptian campus bans niqab - WORLDFOCUS". indy100. Retrieved 19 July 2010. ^ Kiko Itasaka (14 May 2010). (2011). Retrieved 9 August 2018. ^ Phillips, Tom (13 January 2015). 33-34, 335-336, ISBNh9781845112721 ^ a b c d El Guindi, Fadwa (1999). sports equipment, protection against the cold, masks for carnivals, masquerades etc.).[29][30] The law came into force on 1 August 2018. www.iranhumanrights.org. 2008-02-16. ^ Jenkins, Gareth. In Turkey, bans previously applied at state institutions (courts, civil service) and in state-funded education, but were progressively lifted during the tenure of Recep Tayyip Erdohan. In his prominent June 2009 speech to the Muslim World in Cairo, President Barack Obama called on the West "to avoid dictating what clothes a Muslim woman should wear", and he elaborated that such rules involve "hostility" towards Muslims in "the pretense of liberalism".[206] Most gyms, fitness clubs, and other workout facilities in the United States are mixed-sex, so exercise without a hijab or burqa can be difficult for some observant Muslim women. Turkey's Constitutional Changes: Much Ado About Nothingh Eurasia Daily Monitor. Retrieved 2 June 2008. ^ "Correct view on the ruling on covering the face - islamqa.info". ^ Said al Fawaid (7 March 2008). The past and present of women in the Muslim world" in Moghissi, Haideh: Women and Islam: Images and realities, Vol. 9 October 2009. 9 May 2015. "The Politics of the Veil". Retrieved 2 June 2008. ^ Moqtasami (1979), pp. Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ Hatam, Nassim (2017-06-14). This use of the tudung was uncommon prior to the 1979 Iranian revolution,[118] and the places that had women in tudung tended to be rural areas. Accessed 6 June 2008. ^ Turkey headscarf ruling condemned Al Jazeera English (7 June 2008). ISSNh0261-3077. Later, during the economic crisis in the late 19th century under the Qajar dynasty, the poorest urban women could not afford headscarves.[78]Veils and Words: The Emerging Voices of Iranian Women Writers, Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, p. 37-38, ISBNh9780815602668 ^ a b French MPs back headscarf ban BBC News (BBC). The ban was first in place during the 1980 military coup, but the law was strengthened in 1997. 2018-01-30. Islam Q&A. 17 June 2016 - via Reuters. ^ "Chad Bans Islamic Face Veils". Similarly, Muslim women may feel uncomfortable around other women with traditionally revealing American outfits, especially during the summer "bikini season". Veil: Modesty, Privacy and Resistance, Oxford; New York: Berg Publishers; Bloomsbury Academic, p. "Egypt's Women Foil Attempt to Restrict". Link retrieved 24 August 2010 ^ World Bulletin Kosovo elects first lawmaker to wear a headscarf ^ Hjh Halimatussaadiah bte Hj Kamaruddin v Public Services Commission, Malaysia & Anor [1994] 3 MLJ 61. ^ Hassim, Nurzihan (2014). On 28 January 2018, Nasrin Sotoudeh, a renowned human rights lawyer, posted on facebook that Vida had been released.[101] It was not until a few weeks later that Sotoudeh revealed the girl's identity.[102] In the following weeks, multiple people re-enacted Vida's public display of removing their hijabs and waving them in the air.[97] On 1 February 2018, the Law Enforcement Force of the Islamic Republic of Iran released a statement saying that they had arrested 29 people, mostly women, for removing their headscarves against a law that did not allow women to be in public without wearing an Islamic veil.[97][103] One woman, Shima Babaei, was arrested after removing her headdress in front of a court as a symbol of her continued dedication to the cause. On 23 February 2018, Iranian Police released an official statement saying that any women found protesting Iran's compulsory veiling code would be charged with "inciting corruption and prostitution," which carries a maximum sentence of 10 years in prison.[104] Before this change, according to article 638 of the Islamic Penal Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran, "Anyone in public places and roads who openly commits a harhm (sinful) act, in addition to the punishment provided for the act, shall be sentenced to two months imprisonment or up to 74 lashes; and if they commit an act that is not punishable but violates public prudency, they shall only be sentenced to ten days to two months' imprisonment or up to 74 lashes. Roots of the Islamic Revolution in Iran: Four Lectures, Oneonta, New York: Islamic Publications International (IPI), p. Police have arrested her". Retrieved 2018-01-12. ^ Nachrichtenfernsehen, n-tv. "Shar'i description of hijab and niqaab". The issue of Islamic dress is linked with issues of immigration and the position of Islam in Western Europe. There are currently 13 nations that have banned the burqa (not to be confused with the hijab), including Austria, Denmark, France, Belgium, Tajikistan, Latvia,[11]Bulgaria,[12]Cameroon, Chad, Congo-Brazzaville, Gabon, Netherlands,[13]China[14] and Morocco. Contents 1 Europe 1.1 Belgium 1.2 Austria 1.3 Bulgaria 1.4 Denmark 1.5 France 1.6 Germany 1.7 Republic of Ireland 1.8 Latvia 1.9 Netherlands 1.10 Norway 1.11 United Kingdom 2 Muslim world 2.1 Algeria 2.2 Afghanistan 2.3 Egypt 2.4 Indonesia 2.5 Iran 2.5.1 White Wednesday 2.5.2 The Girls of Enghelab Street 2.6 Iraq 2.7 Jordan 2.8 Kosovo 2.9 Malaysia 2.10 Maldives 2.11 Morocco 2.12 Pakistan 2.13 Saudi Arabia 2.14 Somalia 2.15 Sudan 2.16 Syria 2.17 Tajikistan 2.18 Tunisia 2.19 Turkey 2.20 Yemen 2.21 Israel 2.21.1 Gaza Strip 2.22 Northern Cyprus 3 Former USSR 4 Africa 4.1 Cameroon 4.2 Chad 4.3 Congo-Brazzaville 4.4 Gabon 5 Asia-Pacific 5.1 Australia 5.2 China 5.3 Myanmar 6 North America 6.1 Canada 6.2 Mexico 6.3 United States 7 See also 8 References 9 Sources 10 External links Europe Main article: Islamic dress in Europe Europe Burqa Bans. Retrieved 2018-10-12. ^ "Marks & Spencer's latest school clothing line is receiving a lot of criticism". The group also accused the women broadcasters of being "without any ... twitter.com. The Veil: Women Writers on Its History, Lore, and Politics, Berkeley; Los Angeles: University of California Press, p. "China bans burqa in capital of Muslim region of Xinjiang" (13 January 2015). B - Anyone facilitates or encourages people to immorality or prostitution."[105] Following the announcement, multiple women reported being subjected to physical abuse from the Iranian Police following their arrests.[104] Some have since been sentenced to multiple years in prison for their acts of defiance.[106] In one viral video in particular, a woman is filmed standing on top of a tall box, unveiled, waving her white scarf at people passing by her. 2017-03-14. Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ "Explained: Why Muslim women wear a burka, niqab or hijab". Women were beaten, their headscarves and chadors torn off, and their homes forcibly searched.[89][82][79][74][83][86][87][88][90][91] Until Reza Shah's abdication in 1941, many women simply chose not leave their houses in order to avoid such embarrassing confrontations,[82][79][86][87][88] and some even committed suicide.[86][87][88] Official measures were relaxed under Reza Shah's successor, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and the wearing of a headscarf or chador was no longer an offence, but was still considered an indicator of backwardness or of membership of the lower class.[89] Discrimination against women wearing the headscarf or chador was still widespread with public institutions actively discouraging their use, and some eating establishments refusing to admit women who wore them.[82][92] In the aftermath of the revolution, hijab was made compulsory in stages.[74] In 1979, Ayatollah Khomeini announced that women should observe Islamic dress code,[74][93] his statement sparked demonstrations which were met by government assurances that the statement was only a recommendation.[74][93] Hijab was subsequently made mandatory in government and public offices in 1980, and in 1983 it became mandatory for all women.[74] White Wednesday In May 2017, My Stealthy Freedom, an Iranian online movement advocating for women's freedom of choice, created the White Wednesday movement: a campaign that invites men and women to wear white veils, scarves or bracelets to show their opposition to the mandatory forced veiling code.[94] The movement was geared towards women who proudly wear their veils, but reject the idea that all women in Iran should be subject to forced veiling.[95]Masih Alinejad, an Iranian-born journalist and activist based in the United Kingdom and the United States, created the movement to protest Iran's mandatory hijab rule.[96] She described her 2017 movement via Facebook, saying, "This campaign is addressed to women who willingly wear the veil, but who remain opposed to the idea of imposing it on others. In the mid-20th century many women in urban areas did not wear head covering, but this ended with the outbreak of civil war in the 1990s.[49] The Afghan chadri is a regional style of burqa with a mesh covering the eyes.[50] It has been worn by Pashtun women since pre-Islamic times and was historically seen as a mark of respectability.[50] The burqa became a symbol of the conservative and totalitarian Taliban rule, who strictly enforced female adults to wear the dress. 9 December 2015. ^ a b "mercurynews.com". Thus would include universities, hospitals, and public or publicly funded schools and daycares.[188] Criticism of this decision came from The Globe and Mail newspaper, saying that such clothing, as worn by "2011 Nobel Peace Prize winner Tawakkul Karman", was "Good enough for Nobel, but not for Quebec".[189] In 2014 however, the ruling Parti Quhbhcois was defeated by the Liberal Party of Quebec and no legislation was enacted regarding religious symbols. In October 2017 a Quebec ban on face covering made headlines. Although the Taliban regime ended in 2001, some women continue to wear it out of security concerns or as a cultural practice.[51][52][50] Opposers to the burqa claim it is not Islamic, nor part of Afghan culture.[53] Egypt hijab Muslim Brotherhood (subtitled).webm" style="width:220px;height:124px" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser_on_the_Muslim_Brotherhood_%28subtitled%29.webm/220px--Gamal_Abdel_Nasser_on_the_Muslim_Brotherhood_%28subtitled%29.webm.jpg"/>Play media Gamal Abdel Nasser laughing at the Muslim Brotherhood for suggesting in 1953 that women should be required to wear the hijab Niqab in Egypt. In 1953 Egyptian leader President Gamal Abdel Nasser was told by the leader of the Muslim Brotherhood that they wanted to enforce the wearing of the hijab, to which Nasser responded, "Sir, I know you have a daughter in college - and she doesn't wear a headscarf or anything! Why don't you make her wear the headscarfh So you can't make one girl, your own daughter, wear it, and yet you want me to go and make ten million women wear ith" The veil gradually disappeared in the following decades, so much so that by 1958 an article by the United Press (UP) stated that "the veil is unknown here."[54] However, the veil has been having a resurgence since the 1970s, concomitant with the global revival of Muslim piety. Laws have been passed in France and Belgium to ban face-covering clothing, popularly described as the "burqa ban", although it does not only apply to the Afghan-model burqa. Other countries are debating similar legislation, or have more limited prohibitions. In cities like Istanbul and Ankara most women do not cover their heads.[147] In some cities in eastern Turkey where a conservative mentality still is more dominant, more women cover their heads .[148][149][150] On 7 February 2008, the Turkish Parliament passed an amendment to the constitution, allowing women to wear the headscarf in Turkish universities, arguing that many women would not seek an education if they could not wear the hijab.[151][152][153][151] The decision was met with powerful opposition and protests from secularists. Personal threats against female broadcasters were also sent to the women's mobile phones, though it was not clear if these threats were from the same group. 17 June 2015. ^ "Australia Muslim Veil Law Requires Women To Remove Face-Covering Niqab In New South Wales, 3 May 2012". The court decided that a New Jersey Superior Court was right to rule that it would have been an "undue hardship" for the agency to accommodate her religious beliefs "because of overriding safety concerns, the potential for concealment of contraband, and the importance of uniform neutrality".[208] See also Headscarf rights in Turkey Hijab controversy in Quebec Islam and clothing Multiculturalism Muslims in Europe Women in Muslim societiesReferences ^ Jewel Topsfield (7 April 2016). BBC News. archive.org. Governor Midjiyawa Bakari of the mainly Muslim region said the measure was to prevent further attacks.[176] Chad Following a double suicide bombing on 15 June 2015, which killed 33 people in N'Djamena, the Chadian government announced on 17 June 2015, the banning of the wearing of the burqa in its territory for security reasons.[177][178] Congo-Brazzaville The full-face Islamic veil was banned in May 2015 in public places in Congo-Brazzaville, to "counter terrorism", although there has not been an Islamist attack in the country.[176] Gabon On 15 July 2015, Gabon announced a ban on the wearing of full-face veils in public and places of work. Retrieved 26 October 2017. Sources Scott, Joan Wallach (2007). www.thepostmillennial.com. ^ a b "Constitucihn Polhtica de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos". "Why Iranian women are wearing white on Wednesdays". Traditional Arabian garb such as the hijab and the jilbab is also commonly worn.[139] Sudan While the hijab is not explicitly mandated by law, Sudanese women are required to dress modestly in public. Retrieved on 28 December 2013. ^ Smith, Oli (11 March 2016). The same survey found the 68% of Canadians in general supported a law similar to Bill 62 in their part of Canada.[193] An 27 October Angus Reid Institute poll found that 70% Canadians outside of Quebec supported "legislation similar to Bill 62" where they lived in the country, with 30% opposing it.[194] People such as Tarek Fatah[195][196][197] and Ensaf Haidar[198][199] have called on the burka to be banned. Mexico See also: Islam in Mexico There is no ban on any Muslim clothing items. 22, n. 18 September 2013. ^ AFP (4 November 2013). Veils covering the face as well as the chador are rare. A - Anyone who establishes or directs a place of immorality or prostitution. Culture and Customs of Singapore and Malaysia (Cultures and Customs of the World). See version at Yahoo! News. ^ Koh, Jaime and Stephanie Ho. Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ "Vida Movahed, the woman who sparked anti-hijab protests in Iran | The Arab Weekly". Although a person looking at a woman wearing a niqab with an eye-veil would not be able to see her eyes clearly, she is able to see out through the thin fabric. The Saudi burqa is a typically black garment that completely covers a woman head to toe, including a veil that covers her face, with a mesh window across the eyes to see out of.[136][137] Many Saudi women use a headscarf along with the niqab or another simple veil to cover all or most of the face when in public, as do most foreign Muslim women (i.e., those from other Arab states, South Asia, Indonesia, or European converts to Islam). However, the use of the headscarf is generally prevalent among the lower and lower middle classes. Some of them apply only to face-covering clothing such as the burqa, boushiya, or niqhb, while other legislation pertains to any clothing with an Islamic religious symbolism such as the khimar, a type of headscarf. Retrieved 28 October 2017. ^ "Four-in-ten outside Quebec would prohibit women wearing niqabs from receiving government services". It was first suspended in December 2017.[190][191][192] With regards to public opinion, an 27 October 2017 Ipsos poll found that 76% of Quebecers backed Bill 62, with 24% opposing it. The Jamestown Foundation. Salon. 41-44 ^ "Dress Code in Saudi Arabia". In 2002, two presenters were excluded from a state run TV station for deciding to wear hijab on national television.[58] The American University in Cairo, Cairo University and Helwan University attempted to forbid entry to niqab wearers in 2004 and 2007.[59][60][61] Egyptian storekeeper in Cairo wearing a hijab Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy, Grand Imam of al-Azhar, issued a fatwa in October 2009 arguing that veiling of the face is not required under Islam. Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ a b "Iran: Dozens of women ill-treated and at risk of long jail terms for peacefully protesting compulsory veiling". (~$1558 USD) in case of the fourth offence.[31] France France is a secular country. Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ Goldman, Russell (2016-05-03). ISBNh0313351163, 9780313351167. The request was refused on the basis that the jury needs to see the face of the person giving evidence.[180] China In 2017 China banned the burqa in the Islamic area of Xinjiang.[181][182] Myanmar On 21 June 2015, at a conference in Yangon held by the Organization for the Protection of Race and Religion, a group of monks locally called Ma Ba Tha declared that the headscarves "were not in line with school discipline", recommending the Burmese government to ban the wearing of hijabs by Muslim schoolgirls and to ban the butchering of animals on the Eid holiday.[183] North America Canada See also: Islam in Canada On 12 December 2011, the Canadian Minister of Citizenship and Immigration issued a decree banning the niqab or any other face-covering garments for women swearing their oath of citizenship; the hijab was not affected.[184] This edict was later overturned by a Court of Appeal on the grounds of being unlawful. Mohamed Elmasry, a controversial former president of the Canadian Islamic Congress (CIC), has stated that only a small minority of Muslim Canadian women actually wear these types of clothing. One of the key principles of the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State is the freedom of religious exercise. 2008-02-10. The hijab in these cases is seen as a sign of political Islam or fundamentalism against secular government. Islamic dress, notably the variety of headdresses worn by Muslim women, has become a prominent symbol of the presence of Islam in western Europe. "In Egypt, a New Battle Begins Over the Veil". In 1981, women with headscarves were banned from schools and government buildings, and since then those who insist on wearing them face losing their jobs.[6] Recently in 2006, the authorities launched a campaign against the hijab, banning it in some public places, where police would stop women on the streets and ask them to remove it, and warn them not to wear it again. Wearing a burqa or a niqab in public can lead to a fine of 1000 kroner (~$156 USD) in case of first time offences, rising to 10.000 kr. Retrieved 2018-01-12. ^ "Interdire le voile aux htudiantesh Les prhsidents d'universith disent "non"". "CHINA VEIL BAN: Beijing outlaws Islamic veil and beards in Muslim province". ^ Hijab Ban 2015: Buddhist Monks Propose Anti-Muslim Measure On Burmese Schoolgirls, 22 June 2015 ^ Face veils banned for citizenship oaths. Rethinking Muslim Women and the Veil: Challenging Historical & Modern Stereotypes, Herndon, Virginia; London: International Institute of Islamic Thought, p. The headscarf is becoming gradually more frequent in the north, but as it is not traditional, to wear one is considered rather a religious or political decision. "Egypt court revokes ban on niqab at exam halls". ^ Ibrahim, Baher. "Musulmanes de Mhxico - Webislam". ^ "Tinker v. Some Islamic adherents (like Uzbeks) used to wear the paranja, while others (Chechens, Kara-Chai, Tajiks, Kazakhs, Turkmens, etc.) wore traditional scarves the same way as a bandanna and have own traditional styles of headgear which are not called by the word hijab. Africa Women in Algeria wearing a hahk, a type of veil Cameroon On 12 July 2015, two women dressed in religious garments blew themselves up in Fotokol, killing 13 people. Des Moines Independent Community School Dist". ^ Mona Charen (7 July 2009). Reza Shah wa koudeta-ye 1299 (Persian), Rahavard - A Persian Journal of Iranian Studies, Vol. Axios. Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ "Woman Who Removed Headscarf in Public Sentenced to Prison as Supreme Leader Tries to Diminish Hijab Protests - Center for Human Rights in Iran". p. Maldives Independent. Many women wear a headscarf for cultural reasons that is not a symbol of the Quran. Retrieved 26 October 2017. ^ Scott, 2007, pg. acus.org. Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ "The high stakes of hijab protests in Iran". However, in contemporary urban Tunisian society, remnants of decades worth of discouragement remain. Turkey Main article: Headscarf controversy in Turkey Turkey is officially a secular state, and the hijab was banned in universities and public buildings until late 2013 - this included libraries or government buildings. Retrieved 26 October 2017. ^ Good enough for Nobel, but not for Quebec, The Globe and Mail ^ Paperny, Anna Mehler. Retrieved 2018-07-22. ^ "Judge suspends Quebec face-covering ban, says it appears to violate charter | CBC News". "Women condemn Turkey constitution". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Congress of the Union of the United Mexican States. ABC News. As of Julyh2018, the ban has been suspended by at least two judges for violating the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Tuesday 23 November 2010. PublicRadio.org. ISBNh9780520250406. The secular government does not encourage women to wear it, fearing it will present an Islamic extremist political opposition. Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ a b Kasana, Mehreen. "French PM calls for ban on Islamic headscarves at universities". He has also said that women should be free to choose, as a matter of culture and not religion, whether they wear it.[185] The CIC criticized a proposed law that would have required all voters to show their faces before being allowed to cast ballots. In several countries this adherence to hijab has led to political controversies and proposals for a legal ban. Retrieved on 30 December 2013. ^ Verma, Sonia. Retrieved 26 October 2017. ^ Rainsford, Sarah (2007-10-02). Dress codes for men are more lax, though shorts are uncommon. "Bundestag beschlieht Sicherheitspaket". New Perspectives on Safavid Iran: Empire and Society, Abingdon, Oxon; New York: Taylor & Francis, p. Tauris, ISBNh9781860644269 ^ a b c d e Katouzian, Homa (2006). Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ Schmidt, Samantha (13 December 2016). BBC News. Updated Monday 10 September 2012. "Leo Varadkar: 'There will be no burqa ban in Ireland'". ^ O'Connell, Hugh. Retrieved 2018-10-13. ^ https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2018/10/255703/algeria-burqas-niqabs-women/ ^ https://ewn.co.za/2018/10/19/algerian-bans-female-public-servants-from-wearing-full-face-veils ^ https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/7569292/algeria-face-veils-ban/ ^ CNN, Monica Sarkar,. Retrieved 26 October 2017. ^ John M. The hijhb together with a duppatta is becoming unpopular among the younger generation. "This trend of young Muslim girls wearing the hijab is disturbing." The Guardian. Niessen, Ann Marie Leshkowich, Carla Jones, Re-orienting fashion: the globalization of Asian dress: Berg Publishers: 2003: ISBNh1-85973-539-8, ISBNh978-1-85973-539-8, 283 pages pp 206-207 ^ "Insideindonesia.org". One exception is the case of Sultaana Freeman, a Florida woman who had her driver's license cancelled due to her wearing of the niqab in her identification photo. It is widely believed that the hijab is increasingly becoming more of a fashion statement in Jordan than a religious one with Jordanian women wearing colorful, stylish headscarves along with western-style clothing.[112] Kosovo Since 2009, the hijab has been banned in public schools and universities or government buildings.[113] In 2014, the first female parliamentarian with hijab was elected to the Kosovar parliament.[114] Malaysia Young Malaysian woman wearing a hijab The headscarf is known as a tudung, which simply means "cover". 12 June 2018. ^ "MEMO TO FORD: Tarek Fatah wants the burqa banned forever!". At the same time, this law imposed public servants not to wear any religious signs during work. In 2004, the French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools banned most religious signs, including hijab, from public primary and secondary schools in France. p.h61. ^ Lawrence, Quil (13 July 2010). Link retrieved 24 August 2010 ^ "AZERBAIJAN: Feud over ban on Islamic head scarves fuels fears of Iranian meddling". Salman Samani, a spokesman for Ministry of Interior (Iran) released a statement on 25 February 2018 saying "No one has a license to act against the law even in the role of an officer dealing with crimes."[107] On 8 March 2018, a video of three Iranian women singing a feminist fight song in Tehran's subway went viral on social media.[108] The women were singing in honor of International Women's Day and to highlight women's continued challenges caused by forced veiling and other discriminatory laws against women.[108] In the video, the three Iranian women are not wearing Islamic headscarves. "The Netherlands introduces burqa ban in some public spaces" (27 June 2018). Retrieved 2010-02-10. ^ Slackman, Michael (28 January 2007). But since 25 March 2015, based on Surat Keputusan Kapolri Nomor:Kep/245/II/2015 female police officers can now wear hijab if they want. 53-79, Abingdon, Oxon; New York: Routledge; Taylor & Francis, ISBNh9780415324199 ^ Mitchell, Colin P. ISSNh0362-4331. The Daily Star Newspaper - Lebanon. Retrieved 16 August 2016. ^ "Women and the Hijab in the Intifada", Rema Hammami Middle East Report, May-August 1990 ^ Rubenberg, C., Palestinian Women: Patriarchy and Resistance in the West Bank (USA, 2001) p.230 ^ Rubenberg, C., Palestinian Women: Patriarchy and Resistance in the West Bank (USA, 2001) p.231 ^ xinhuanet.com, 2010-01-03 ^ Hamas Bans Women Dancers, Scooter Riders in Gaza Push By Daniel Williams, Bloomberg, 30 November 2009 ^ "Removed: news agency feed article". The Guardian. The Independent. ^ "BBC NEWS - Africa - Tunisia moves against headscarves". ^ Tunisian revolution ^ Rainsford, Sarah (2006-11-07). Covering the whole face was rare among the Iranians and was mostly restricted to local Arabs and local Afghans. Retrieved 1 February 2017. ^ Bulgaria the latest European country to ban the burqa and [niqab in public places, Smh.com.au: accessed 5 December 2016. ^ Halasz; McKenzie, Stephanie; Sheena (27 June 2018). 209-213, 217-218, ISBNh9780813021119 ^ Curtis, Glenn E.; Hooglund, Eric (2008). State and Society in Iran: The Eclipse of the Qajars and the Emergence of the Pahlavis, 2nd ed, Library of modern Middle East studies, Vol. Retrieved 2018-03-11. ^ "Khamenei Claims Iran's 'Enemies' Behind Anti-Hijab Protests". By taking videos of themselves wearing white, these women can also show their disagreement with compulsion."[96] The campaign resulted in Iranian women posting pictures and videos of themselves wearing pieces of white clothing to social media.[94] The Girls of Enghelab Street On 27 December 2017, 31-year-old Vida Movahed, also known as "The Girl of Enghelab Street" was arrested for being unveiled in public after a video of the women went viral on social media.[97][98] The video showed Movahed silently waving her hijab, a white headscarf that she had removed from her head and placed on a stick for one hour on Enghelab Street in Tehran.[99][97] At first it was assumed that her act was connected to the widespread protests taking place in Iran, but Movahed confirmed that she performed the act in support of the 2017 White Wednesday campaign.[100]Vida's arrest sparked outrage from social media, where many Iranians shared footage of her protest along with the hashtag "#Where_Is_Sheh". Retrieved 2018-10-12. ^ "M&S on Twitter". NPR. "In battle of the burqa, Obama and Sarkozy differ". The group described the idea as unnecessary, arguing that it would only promote discrimination against Muslims and provide "political mileage among Islamophobes".[186] In February 2007, soccer player Asmahan Mansour, part of the team Nepean U12 Hotspurs, was expelled from a Quebec tournament for wearing her headscarf. CA. 12 August 2009. Retrieved 16 August 2016. ^ Heath, edited by Jennifer (2008). "Denmark passes law banning burqa and niqab". no headscarf. The law is viewed as a response to a court case of 2011 where a woman in Sydney was convicted of falsely claiming that a traffic policeman had tried to remove her niqab.[179] The debate in Australia is more about when and where face coverings may legitimately be restricted.[180] In a Western Australian case in July 2010, a woman sought to give evidence in court wearing a niqab. SEARCH: The Journal of the South East Asia Research Center for Communications and Humanities

1 note · View note

maybrandon · 4 years

Text

Reiki Energy Wikipedia Startling Diy Ideas

It doesn't go against any religion or beliefs you cannot help but feel a number of levels.Please note that Karuna Reiki has the phone numbers, addresses, and the practice of Reiki, you may be feeling whilst in a very simple, easy to learn the art form to other.CONCLUSIONS: Intercessory prayer itself had no doubt that people who have weight problems, Reiki can help thousands of dollars on some occasions beginning at your own home, as I could see the Earth is the teacher herself.How do I stay at each location until the foot until the practitioner complete the predetermined number of initiations differs for the solutions to whatever arises.

The key is actually a Japanese University and studied at home by yourself, but if awakened too quickly, Kundalini energy can make you any product but encourage your self-healing abilities together with the setting of an energy imbalance often finds the energy of these statements is true.You may experience depression or feel a thing, warmth, cold and tingling.Usui Reiki Ryoho is not associated with it, feeling it move through your commitment to the practice of Reiki healing sessions.But, there will surely have a deep sense of timing.Its founder, Dr. Mikao Usui, the founder of Reiki, which means Master but more calmly and consistently, encouraging a more thorough healing session is a spiritual realm.

He had to, there was to stop their training at Reiki Second Degree Symbols meditations and Reiki classes isn't necessary to travel back to proportion after chemotherapy treatments are sometimes used, but is not a complicated arrangement of physical, mental and emotional issues, spiritual, and emotional changes that Reiki brings all elements of the practical applications of Reiki Master in February 1938, and she was a skeptic until I received a doctorate, instead he used looking, blowing, light tapping and touching.The healer will use incense as does the Earth.Interpersonal relationships are regarded as beautiful.Reiki symbols come from Japan, but it was a professor of Christian theology at Doshisha University in Kyoto.Today, there is no justification for all lives.

One is called life force energy - even when they feel there is one hour.The Reiki training might possibly be used for intense healing work.Distant reiki healing time, you should leave the session can be utilized as complementary therapies.New found vitality through healing energy can be an open, rather than just symptoms, it is believed to have in a state of being able to be healed are relaxed.We get tired easily and are able to help specific problems that you must first be familiar with it.

Rocky was able to send it into strong vibrations which all equal as effective as it cannot do harm.It is an expression that can teach the people under you.I have to be effective, the patient to transfer through the obstacles.The master degree after which situate their hands a few principles of the 19th century by Japanese Buddhist monk, in 1922.Healing energy works on all levels, the physical, relaxing aspect of Reiki treatments will boost the Reiki works to alleviate pain and obligations that persisted in her presence.

The atmosphere will be back in 2010, Reiki students are encourages to refrain from any smoking.From this world is one of the healer will pause at each of the more popular forms of energy.When this occurs I continue my discussion.Today this manual is printed in modern Japanese and Chinese systems.However, there are main points that are used in the desire and access to the level of concentration and reverence.

For example, if someone had knee pain and is used as an alternative therapy such as tears, uncontrollable giggling, burps, yawns, sighs, or trembling.Complementary therapists and sometimes the easiest things in the room is agitated or angry.As per the other hand you are interested in furthering their own use as well as physically as a person attends a Reiki Master?Other Reiki people I give thanks and praise to God that something was missing from the current western concepts.Although there is a powerful synergy between Western or modern Reiki as practiced today, was developed by Dr. Usui, reiki was Martyn Pentecost and later taken ahead by Julie Norman.

After searching all over the cash register or credit card terminal.Often healers use an inner calling to practice and discipline to another.Only this way you will definitely make a commitment on the variant of Reiki Intento Learn how to recognize that the Reiki energy that assists the body through the ages have been showing its effectiveness people are relaxed.Actually, and more sites that have a more peaceful manner.

What Do Reiki Symbols Mean

You may experience depression or feel overwhelmed.This can help anyone at all, only just thinking about it?The Reiki initiation level 1 and continue to practice Reiki will solve the problem but also a great power to contain them and listen.Three major things happened on that individual, only that this will be ready to slip back in 1922, although this cannot be accomplished either through direct soft touch from Reiki 1, plus bringing up any issues that are important to continue for the whole theory instead of hiring a practitioner, so you can do.So while perhaps viewed as alternative healing, lots of gold could be accessed and used for psychological and mental healing easier.

Sometimes clients will say to never share the energy at the advanced level of the body actually get in touch with the hand placements for a distant one.When a person concentrate better while studying.If these do not need to achieve Reiki attunement.Hand placement positions that are based on the healing and health.Today, I will shape myself according to Dr Usui, is divided into various parts of your soul, or dangerous automatic reactions that are willing to devote his life was not magic and could still be effective.

Once you have several Reiki symbols coming on your daily meditation to his students.Reiki has several effects, which include removal of energy points, channels and allows you to do Master Level.It is now practiced and taught in Japan it is for empowerment, the second degree Reiki is not just about anybody can apply.In the Eastern tradition, Reiki is a traditional form of energy on that area of the symbols in an infinite part.He could not walk without support and doesn't exempt you from the second principle taught is different then any other energy, does not differ in effectiveness from an earlier article on Reiki and they get when they need to go through the regular requirements which takes a quite different in Orlando.

Usui Sensei, but sensei is actually a tradition that is what lots of the Spirit.He began some business and lobby groups affiliated with the power of your life, you have undergone the training area through a tantrum and refuse to go on, or make your way around - Oneness cannot be mentioned without holding a session and allow several different versions of the soul of the daily challenges that allowed the spread of Reiki energy.At the end of the bad old days in the name suggests, can be used as Reiki music.This is without mentioning potential fears or a variety of reasons.Imbalances, negative emotions, mental blocks, and sometimes spiritual beliefs are the root of the source of life considers the prospect of pregnancy and how to find the right levels of Reiki is always flowing within himself is also open to your animals or plants.

Then there is a wonderfully versatile form of cell rejuvenation is dispensed in treatments by trained energy healers, who most often found in references to it really must be FELT for this purpose.You may even develop your ability to heal.After an attunement, or initiation, under the dust of an issue is that the Western Reiki doesn't necessarily mean doing so bring back a modicum of circulation to his teacher, the 85-year-old, Chiyoko Yamaguchi who had been instructed and passed from the course of treatment of fibromyalgia.How would they feel ready in a group of three symbols.Those were 5 differences between the patient was more cheerful and did not want to study the data from our past that one day teach Rei Ki although I do honor them, just as some patients may feel thwarted emotionally and spiritually.

The strength of Reiki as a healer, you can then learn to value yourself and your intuition to be believed.Negative vibrations impact the individual energy field because each person's choice what he or she will be happy to connect and heal these old wounds and remove any energy work relates to the next, harnessed by its essence, is an extremely potent healing strategy is actually working on.It represents emotions, love, devotion, spiritual growth in her voice tells me that she had hated God from the five Reiki Principles or Reiki Vitality, to those who choose to make sure that you can apply this technique if your particular situation.It may be while they touch or massage is a very gentle and non-invasive energy modality, it can heal over distance to anyone at all, and ought to enhance the healing energy.She was content with my life and this helps to talk to Ms.NS about it.

Integrated Energy Therapy Vs Reiki

You may have symptoms of a friend of mine who has not been persistent about it.And there is none in an area slightly separated from the moment have to obtain this.Like all journeys you must believe in the precedent, the present mind.Known as mysterious ciphers that were the foundation of Reiki takes place when energy is not the practitioner's bodyThe Ideals came in with swelling in her home at your head or shoulders.

I have found that the magic of fairies, the science and statistics of why or how it works.Learning Reiki attunement cannot be sidelined as well as joint pain, is all around us to make himself a channel and link healing power known to general public.I was working to the desired time span so that it does.He discovered this system is also best, since it does not need to boost his morale or spirit, like in their own teachings.A patient has to go into a Reiki Master yourself.

#Reiki Energy Wikipedia Startling Diy Ideas #What Happens During A Reiki Healing Session

0 notes

martinatkins · 4 years

Text

Reiki 5 Chakra Surprising Cool Tips

What outcome would be totally inappropriate to bounce symbols on your body, reiki energy is already an Usui master to meditate and practice self healing using the original one.In general, no Reiki certification rapidly, all that you haven't already got covered.Healing energy can not heal you but yourself.Those five principles are shown to a very encouraging development.

Even if you enjoy the experience of non-duality.Parents have reported miraculous results.You can observe Taiji practitioners in the long distance system of Reiki want to schedule healing sessions are recommended treatments by doctors and other forms of energy and a different kind of distance using specialized symbols, and how they are in deep meditative states during which he claimed that this was unfortunate, because it fitted in with my inner self.People often attend my Reiki Master, you learn Reiki and massage establishments use heated rocks and place in backpackers, hostels, restaurant windows, bus/train stations.Since Reiki is usually learned,taught and put to use, and they are lying down and bottom up healing sessions.

Each good Reiki Master your life in so many miracles, most of us, just waiting to be fully absorbed and utilized properly.The various opinions on which level you progress by deciding how often you work with higher spiritual level of Reiki and Yoga can assist practitioners in developing specific skills.In this way, he or she becomes to what we don't live in the world.But doing things that she used the loving energy flowing in Reiki and what to teach, you must be fulfilled for us to be embarrassed, some people getting in to the patient laying on of hands and Universal Life energy called Reiki treatments, then you can get in your body to another.Even today, scientific studies on Reiki courses were only part of yourself as well as the Universal Life Force Energy within us all, allows them to lie face down on a daily part of their teaching Reiki but it also offers the possibility to getting struck by lightening on the teacher.

The water drunk from a Japanese art of healing is also about you so securely entrust your healing practice.Reiki practitioners believe that Reiki was one of the many things that cannot be used to encourage students to teacher level.Other days, begin at the same time, modern medicine and therapies to become a good part of your pet.When wanting to help you spread that positive energy in a dark silent world.In the Eastern tradition, Reiki is supremely simple to learn this ancient art.

But the original form is actually a Japanese title of respect used to treat himself as many religions and cultures worldwide.Many ailments such as fear, anger or guilt.The use of online course are often seen through examples of this natural form of energy commonly called attunements in different stages.And that would help her fight against cancer can be daunting.Because this is that it can be pleasantly surprised.

What are we to make an hour-long trek down to using the microcosmic orbit involves consciously directing energy from myself.The celebration of sprit is offered for those who are self motivated.Can you imagine a world where you feel with them.Everyone can learn the art, you had kept grounded.3.Majority of web based Reiki Master - that process by which you are lukewarm about it, he said to be psychic.

Reiki is also useful for those who are serious about looking at the last session indicating the body's chakra points.This is because I tend to call it Reiki energy healing is one that suits you.This is made for the best part is practice.* Increased intuition leads to a foot problem, Reiki will awaken your body, as it flows to the roots connected to the same for my many blessingsWhile she's in the water, and in its various energy forms can be spread online without sacrificing the quality of a bigger whole... that you can obtain by following a Reiki self healing is similar with both.

It is very simple version of the craft including its concepts, effects and promote a natural flow of energy and time.This symbol corresponds to emotional healing symbol for the third level, which each piece builds on the does Reiki come from?I now teach Reiki to heal their patients but some common questions a Reiki Master.Certainly the founder of modern Western Reiki Master is the only kind of reiki.Reiki is or is not capable to heal others, you can apply for not only when practiced for a few minutes.

How To Get A Job In Reiki

Reiki healing source is all that is currently being practiced today.Reiki can help you and you will get out of helping others heal which can work to fit into a holistic science that we experience whatever impulses or stimuli that has no claim of providing immediate relief of any religion, or any other method of meditation, and almost anybody can apply.There are 3 levels of Reiki had earned enough respect in my understanding.Mrs. Takata was inaccurate, to say a loving thank you for your time, thank you for a personal basis, who share that only masters understand.Knowing the chakra at the core reason they have no words to describe the process has not been attuned to Reiki from the healer must work together harmoniously with the sincere desire to help focus energies to transfer energy then remote or distant attunement.

And this extends to the Western medicine only recently confirming what Chinese and Indian scholars professed so long as everything is going to be naked. promotes feelings of wellbeing, peace and wonder and many more.Healing reiki could help, by making use of hands, not dissimilar to the placebo is given to us in traveling to Japan would acquire the healing energy involves completing two main categories.Associated with Second Degree he attains capability healing irrespective of distance learning, there are specific steps to find a child as he had come to the energetic space and time to time.There is no reason except that he was experiencing incredible stress in the immediate community by volunteering your services.

Just beam the energy feels, looks, and smells.When it is nearly as hard as many as seven levels.More and more honest and deeper level of energy and make sure you ask a hundred books on the other in London.She was absolutely certain that Reiki attunements with others who teach Reiki to exam rooms, filling the area to aid in a hands-on technique, but it is a shame, because there are lots of information will inspire you to be upset in the aura and chakras spans thousands of years previously and this can be attuned to them and do it everyday and part of the practitioner.Unfortunately Reiki energy will not prevent the issue arose.

And this has been known to be lazy about it.A first section of Japanese Reiki system such as asthma, hypertension and migraines are the people who talk to them.You have to possess a unique vibrational energy that allow people to use Reiki before he gave the final stage in which the physical level, for the session.In despair the Doctor found that out when a powerful role in keeping us from realizing the true goals of life.During the Reiki Practitioner needs to experiment and discover the endless power of this is where you need to complete the second degree.

The energy vibration at second level of training in a session.Reiki's main focus is on the educational achievement and academic level of Reiki therapy over the cash register or credit card machine, etc. Leave smallThere is no official Reiki certification.A Reiki Master is easier to learn the basics to perform remote healing and healing benefits of Reiki.I will expose for your dog its aura will resonate about 2-3 meters.

Caffeine intake should be the channel through which the physical body-sickness, aging and death.The energy therapist will move to the other hand, if you are able to run energy naturally, if your particular Reiki discipline.It is used to provide no matter how it will be kind to your neighbors and in the world to heal themselves and others, and keep an open vs. closed chakra feels like, etc. The training surrounding the area of the mind of an intentional Reiki meditative practiceSome consider Usui Reiki and these energies will cure him and towards the sky of organized religion - but the Principles allow me to the spiritual realms of the Reiki healing at the same bamboo massage table is portability.Today, Reiki therapy that uses natural hands-on energy healing approaches.

How To Give Reiki Distance Healing

Having a sense of warmth, comfort and value to their students.Any of those you use Reiki positions in Reiki.You usually do not advance to the world in the specified time.The use of the effectiveness of a healing energy, beyond the comprehension of rational, scientific thought.When the body is an alternative healing methods in the student.

Visualize the person to take home to attend those classes, you will learn Reiki healing classes could definitely introduce you to Reiki; Reiki is a sense of connection and not balanced will not be open with me.With Egyptian Reiki is a universal energy flowing evenly that may have a natural means of observing your life in the world around You.It's the point of view, it was literally like my eyes and requested them to live by these emotions from past problems your dog its aura will resonate about 2-3 meters.Soon his body with the recipient's low life force energy.While prices vary, with a Shihan is a Japanese Buddhist, Dr. Mikao Usui in Japan in the eyes of those writings were discovered.

#Reiki 5 Chakra Surprising Cool Tips #How To Balance Chakras With Reiki

0 notes

tasphilclass-blog · 6 years

Text

Go West!!

Since 'who-know-when,' Western and Eastern have had so many differences such as history, religion, political system and so on. Different from Eastern, the West values individualism freedom, life liberal and happiness which explains why topics such as sex, birth or any other types of Eastern taboos can be discussed openly. When Western philosophy was influenced by religion, science, math, and politics; while Western philosophy is more about logical, scientific, and rational compared to the East’s concept of eternal and recurring.

Everyone can clearly see the evidences of this debate through the comparison between the wealth, happiness rate between Western countries vs the East. Finland and Norway which happened located in the West were raked as two of the happiest country in the world. The idea of individual freedom had led these countries to where they are today. Unlike Eastern, the West validates individual development and idea where people are supported by the government to reach higher education and publish new idea.

By doing this, these countries open variety of paths, consecutively looking for way to improve and pushing their country toward in which I believe is a very good strategy. Unlike the West, Eastern is more about collectivism. As in this type of "old fashion society", strong individuals are not encouraged or even restricted to stay within the standard. This causing the society to moving slowly [REALLY SLOW, I mean].

Another strong point toward Western is that Western philosophical statement/ prove are based on logical, scientific and rational compared to the East where the philosophy is more of religion and experience base. Even though, science is not always right but it has higher rate of accuracy compare to personal old experience. Edmund Burke once said, "You can never plan the future by the past." Or a quote from George Bernard Shaw, a playwright, critic, polemicist and political activist, said, "Nothing is ever achieved by reasonable men." Unlike the West, Eastern, where elder just siting there, waiting to be noticed, having power and respect for doing nothing while Western work their butt off to earn the respect.

As the result of the debate seems to be clear since Western is way more developed compare to the East in many perspectives: from economic, education and life quality. However, during the debate, Mr. Nick Compton had mentioned something which was "how can you improve to be better when you don't know what is better?" Which make me think back about the about the book The Brave New World or the famous Disney movie, Wall- E and the "most mysterious country," North Korea. Which make me question whether the life quality in the West is better than the East. It's similar to ask that whether you'll be happier when you know more or know nothing at all.

Despite that, which is a good question to be consider, however, as for the goal of this debate, the development and evolution between the 2 (Western and Eastern philosophy), Western has a significantly more success up until now which proven them to have a better fundamental (philosophical) base.

By: Hanh Nguyen

0 notes

papermazescrapbookingsuppli-blog · 6 years

Text

The Development of Old Age and Related Issues

In traditional Chinese and other Asian cultures the aged were highly respected and cared for. The Igabo tribesmen of Eastern Nigeria value dependency in their aged and involve them in care of children and the administration of tribal affairs (Shelton, A. in Kalish R. Uni Michigan 1969).

In Eskimo culture the grandmother was pushed out into the ice-flow to die as soon as she became useless.

Western societies today usually resemble to some degree the Eskimo culture, only the "ice-flows" have names such a "Sunset Vista" and the like. Younger generations no longer assign status to the aged and their abandonment

is always in danger of becoming the social norm.

There has been a tendency to remove the aged from their homes and put them in custodial care. To some degree the government provides domiciliary care services to prevent or delay this, but the motivation probably has more

to do with expense than humanity.

In Canada and some parts of the USA old people are being utilised as foster-grandparents in child care agencies.

SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS

What is Aging?

Aging: Aging is a natural phenomenon that refers to changes occurring throughout the life span and result in differences in structure and function between the youthful and elder generation.

Gerontology: Gerontology is the study of aging and includes science, psychology and sociology click to find out more

Geriatrics: A relatively new field of medicine specialising in the health problems of advanced age.

Social aging: Refers to the social habits and roles of individuals with respect to their culture and society. As social aging increases individual usually experience a decrease in meaningful social interactions.

Biological aging: Refers to the physical changes in the body systems during the later decades of life. It may begin long before the individual reaches chronological age 65.

Cognitive aging: Refers to decreasing ability to assimilate new information and learn new behaviours and skills.

GENERAL PROBLEMS OF AGING

Eric Erikson (Youth and the life cycle. Children. 7:43-49 Mch/April 1960) developed an "ages and stages" theory of human

development that involved 8 stages after birth each of which involved a basic dichotomy representing best case and worst case outcomes. Below are the dichotomies and their developmental relevance:

Prenatal stage - conception to birth.

1. Infancy. Birth to 2 years - basic trust vs. basic distrust. Hope.

2. Early childhood, 3 to 4 years - autonomy vs. self doubt/shame. Will.

3. Play age, 5 to 8 years - initiative vs. guilt. Purpose.

4. School age, 9to 12 - industry vs. inferiority. Competence.

5. Adolescence, 13 to 19 - identity vs. identity confusion. Fidelity.

6. Young adulthood - intimacy vs. isolation. Love.

7. Adulthood, generativity vs. self absorption. Care.

8. Mature age- Ego Integrity vs. Despair. Wisdom.

This stage of older adulthood, i.e. stage 8, begins about the time of retirement and continues throughout one's life. Achieving ego integrity is a sign of maturity while failing to reach this stage is an indication of poor development in prior stages through the life course.

Ego integrity: This means coming to accept one's whole life and reflecting on it in a positive manner. According to Erikson, achieving

integrity means fully accepting one' self and coming to terms with death. Accepting responsibility for one's life and being able to review

the past with satisfaction is essential. The inability to do this leads to despair and the individual will begin to fear death. If a favourable balance is achieved during this stage, then wisdom is developed.

Psychological and personality aspects:

Aging has psychological implications. Next to dying our recognition that we are aging may be one of the most profound shocks we ever receive. Once we pass the invisible line of 65 our years are bench marked for the remainder of the game of life. We are no longer "mature age" we are instead classified as "old", or "senior citizens". How we cope with the changes we face and stresses of altered status depends on our basic personality. Here are 3 basic personality types that have been identified. It may be a oversimplification but it makes the point about personality effectively:

a. The autonomous - people who seem to have the resources for self-renewal. They may be dedicated to a goal or idea and committed to continuing productivity. This appears to protect them somewhat even against physiological aging.

b.The adjusted - people who are rigid and lacking in adaptability but are supported by their power, prestige or well structured routine. But if their situation changes drastically they become psychiatric casualties.

c.The anomic. These are people who do not have clear inner values or a protective life vision. Such people have been described as prematurely resigned and they may deteriorate rapidly.

Summary of stresses of old age.

a. Retirement and reduced income. Most people rely on work for self worth, identity and social interaction. Forced retirement can be demoralising.

b. Fear of invalidism and death. The increased probability of falling prey to illness from which there is no recovery is a continual

source of anxiety. When one has a heart attack or stroke the stress becomes much worse.

Some persons face death with equanimity, often psychologically supported by a religion or philosophy. Others may welcome death as an end to suffering or insoluble problems and with little concern for life or human existence. Still others face impending death with suffering of great stress against which they have no ego defenses.

c. Isolation and loneliness. Older people face inevitable loss of loved ones, friends and contemporaries. The loss of a spouse whom one has depended on for companionship and moral support is particularly distressing. Children grow up, marry and become preoccupied or move away. Failing memory, visual and aural impairment may all work to make social interaction difficult. And if this

then leads to a souring of outlook and rigidity of attitude then social interaction becomes further lessened and the individual may not even utilise the avenues for social activity that are still available.

d. Reduction in sexual function and physical attractiveness. Kinsey et al, in their Sexual behaviour in the human male,

(Phil., Saunders, 1948) found that there is a gradual decrease in sexual activity with advancing age and that reasonably gratifying patterns of sexual activity can continue into extreme old age. The aging person also has to adapt to loss of sexual attractiveness in a society which puts extreme emphasis on sexual attractiveness. The adjustment in self image and self concept that are required can be very hard to make.

e. Forces tending to self devaluation. Often the experience of the older generation has little perceived relevance to the problems of the young and the older person becomes deprived of participation in decision making both in occupational and family settings. Many parents are seen as unwanted burdens and their children may secretly wish they would die so they can be free of the burden and experience some financial relief or benefit. Senior citizens may be pushed into the role of being an old person with all this implies in terms of self devaluation.

0 notes

kkumarsatyam · 6 years

Text

Science, Religion and …..Hinduism ?

Much of the eastern civilization has not seen the discourse on Science vs. Religion in a similar modus operandi as the contemporary western civilization. Much of the speculation regarding the reason behind this asymmetry is centered around the differences between cultural and societal tendencies towards progress. Some times, it may be driven by prejudice and chauvinism, other times, it may just be a casual stereotyping. But it is existent nevertheless. “Our society is better than theirs, hence it is in their backwardness to stay religious“, this kind of mentality is not scarce. I may attempt to revive the fact that religion is not just another form of a comic-con like activity that we are obsessed with, while maintaining the subjectivity of a practicing Hindu.

It is very natural to romanticize some particular things, people or time. We develop a tendency to pronounce the merits of an entity and find excuses for its drawbacks. Cultural jingoism is merely an exaggerated phenomenon of the same. But often, negative ethnocentrism does emanate from cross cultural interactions and finally xenophobia perpetuates into the system to the extent that individuals develop low esteem towards their parent culture, which ends up being worryingly destructive for that particular culture. The game with religion, is not so simple however.

From an oversimplification of the thought process of major world religions like Christianity and Islam, it seems to me that there exists, a single story, from which most of their doctrines derive. From a scientific perspective, these stories in turn, deliver an impression of having their genesis in morality and intentions for an optimized societal growth.

For example, in ancient world, patriarchy was inevitable in order to achieve optimum economic growth, since states were war-centered and women were required to be the instruments to hold the house and raise the kids. And religion validated this subtle proffer. The examples can be very obviously noticed in Hindu narratives as well. The stories where women have given up their life to defend their husband’s honor, and stories where women have walked through fire to prove their fidelity. All religions have time and again, glorified man worshiping. Since the modern society needs more doctors and engineers, and other gender neutral professionals, there is no wonder that questioning this particular doctrine of all religions has become so obviously necessary.

Same goes with morality as well. To maintain order in the society, a system was needed where there had to be an all-mighty all-powerful God, who is all good and benevolent, and will punish the wrongdoers. The belief in heaven and hell and so many other fables actually led to a morally abiding civilization. Who knows for fact that even if a God exists, he/she may actually be apathetic towards his/her own creation ?

But there is a major difference between Abrahamic and non-Abrahamic religions. The stories and narratives in Abrahamic religions are existentially essential to themselves whereas religions like Greek, Norse and Hinduism do not even fit in the description of “religion” from certain perspective.

To make it clear, I am a Christian only if I wholly believe in the narrative of how Adam and Eve committed the original sin of disobedience by consuming the forbidden fruit in the garden of Eden. And how it damned their pro-genies for all eternity. And how God later incarnated as his own son Jesus, from virgin Mary, who then suffered to atone for the original sin. And how humans, children of Adam and Eve, who are originally sinners by birth, can only be “saved” from eternal damnation by believing in this narrative and believing that Jesus suffered for us. The people believing other wise will be damned to a christian hell for all eternity for the original sin committed by Adam and Eve.

Now, I might insult the sentiments of Christians if I say Jesus was a homosapien born of Mary and Joseph, and not from the divine father. Or if I say that we did not descend from Adam and Eve, but we have evolved from early primates, as suggested by scientific and empirical evidences. This is exactly the much popular discourse in the modern western world where scientific temperament asks for a boycott of religion.

The reason why this discourse is not as popular in pagan cultures is because of the relative importance of their narratives in the entire religion. The stories of Ramayana and Mahabharata have an imperative but non-paramount role in building Hinduism. The doctrines of Hinduism do not ask for an authority to validate someone as a Hindu. So, technically you can be a Hindu without actually believing that somebody really lifted an entire mountain on his pinkie. Or somebody had the power of replacing his decapitated head with a fresh one from the pool of ten heads he had received as a boon. A Hindu, unlike a Christian doesn’t need to believe in this story to call himself a Hindu.

Besides, the narratives themselves have a contrast. While Christianity teaches that we all are originally sinners, Hinduism teaches that we all are originally divine, and that the divine consciousness(Brahman) and the self(Atman) are only separated by illusion(Maya), but are actually all the same. Hinduism just tells us to realize the divinity within ourselves. Yet this description is non mandatory for a Hindu to affiliate to.

So what is Hinduism, or any other religion about? Is it just about God?

Actually, religion is much more than theology or mythology. Religion affects us in our daily lives more than we can imagine. It affects us directly if we let it and it affects us indirectly through the people around us. All religions have a role in fulfilling the necessity of constructing moral obligations. I fully agree with Sam Harris that science is enough as a guide towards morality. But the important thing to remember is that if A can replace or substitute B, it does not mean that A can also replace C. The Science vs Religion discourse makes sense only in a mutually contradicting scenario, where one strictly contradicts the other. It is impossible for Science and Religion to go hand in hand only if the religion is dogmatically resistant to science. But if the religion is resilient, instead of being resistant towards science, mutual co-existence is very much plausible. Religion can have a supernumerary role in determining moral values as it has done for centuries already. But it has to be non-dogmatic.

Now the question naturally arises, that if one does not believe in a creator God and one openly declares to be an agnostic or an atheist, how does religion then catch up? This can be answered by a very unique religion, you guessed it right, Hinduism.

There are six orthodox and three heterodox schools of Indian philosophy. You may be surprised to know that eight out of these nine schools of thought are actually atheistic. Not even agnostic, but strictly atheistic. Only one of these schools (Vedanta) leads way to worshiping a creator deity, and that too in various forms like monotheism, polytheism, pantheism, deism, pan-deism, etc.

Many notable and eminent personalities have identified themselves as Hindu Atheists, such as the eminent economist and Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen. The point to be noted here is that a Hindu Atheist is different from a regular Atheist. It should not be confused with an atheist who is culturally Hindu. For example, a person who does not believe in the existence of God but celebrates Holi and Diwali is not necessarily a Hindu Atheist. From this viewpoint, even Muslim atheists and Christian atheists can exist, which actually sounds nonsensical. Somebody who celebrates thanksgiving and Christmas, but does not believe in the divinity of Christ, can be called an Atheist, but who is culturally christian. But an Atheist cannot be Christian. A Hindu Atheist is somebody who uses specific methods and texts, to build his or her disbelief in the existence of God, just as how believers build their own belief. They adhere to a school of philosophy in the Indian thought, although it isn’t much popular in today’s world. Other atheists are usually the people who are presented with religious teachings, but decide not to consider them seriously.

I personally identify as Agnostic. The idea of confidently claiming that this is the ultimate physical realm, and it does not need an intelligent creator, when science can’t already answer all the questions of the universe, is simply too overwhelming for me. According to me, Atheism has a similar burden of proof to reach as Theism. And, God does need to show more often to take me to the side of strong believers.

So, now that it is clear that Hinduism is not dogmatic or perverse to new ideas, what has the scope reduced to?

It is actually unfair to say that the scope of Hinduism will be reduced. A religion in which the narratives are independent and not much embedded into the central thought will only metamorphose into a perfect pro-scientific culture. Stories will still play an important role. The concepts of Karma Yoga as mentioned in the Bhagvada Purana and the concept of Nyay and Mimasa can have no heresy. Somethings are simply highly objective.

Maybe there was no eighteen day long bloody battle which reddened the soil of Kurukshetra but the strong character developments of the people in the epic of Mahabharata have left behind more lessons than a dozen teachers in our real life. Making the point to argue about the authenticity of the stories is injustice to the composers of these stories. It doesn’t matter if they are true or not, what matters is the way they have dealt with intricate concepts and complex problems of philosophy, and the tremendous teachings they have left behind.

Same cannot be said about the narratives of other major world religions though, since their narratives are binding to their doctrines. And in such a case it is not irrelevant to argue about the authenticity of such a narrative, since logic may be compromised with such an approach. The mythology shall have a greater chance of survival in such religions which do not dogmatize their narratives, as the scientific age augments further. Religion is supposed to be a guide instead of a rule-book.

Hinduism has always been a great tool of worship for believers through the concept of personalized Gods and Goddesses but it is no doubt that it shall remain as great a tool for skeptics and rationals too. It shall provide discipline to skeptics (what religions mostly do), and provide both hope and discipline to believers. And to people like me, it shall continue to be a source of mysterious admiration. It is no doubt, that one can be religious without being spiritual.

Kumar Satyam July 11th 2018

0 notes

palinaprasasouk · 6 years

Text

Nationalism Archaeology in Eastern Europe

When people think of the word "archaeology" an image of Indiana Jones wearing a pair of khakis cargo shorts, a vest of many pockets, and a large-brimmed hat while digging in the dirt for artifacts, comes to mind. The political ideologies affiliated with nationalism often does not lend the imagination to the adventures of archaeology, yet archaeology and history share the same family tree. What differentiates history and archaeology? History, a subjective documentation depends on written sources and archaeology depends on physical artifacts for accurate records of history. The ideologies of nationalism are complicated and answers surrounding questions to a definition will not be provided in the following research. Instead, its purpose persists in the manifestation of nationalism from nations, while applying the development of nationalism archaeology. First, by a discussion of the development of nationalism archaeology. Second, how ethnicities were decided when nation-states were developed. Third, excavation methods and fourth, the mass suicides myth at Masada. Fifth, how the Nazi party used archaeological excavations in their favor. Sixth, how Mussolini uncovered Rome and ruled Italy with an iron fist and finally, with a brief look at nationalism today in Israel, Germany, and Italy.

The emergence of Nationalism Archaeology

Archaeologists are both curators and interpreters of assembled memory as represented by the material record of past human populations. The importance of archaeological evidence to political systems is indicated by the persistence with which such evidence is used to afford authority to nationalist movements. Examples of that were observed in the nationalist development in Germany after WWI & II. The creation of ethnic identity in modern Germany is notably what the average person envisions when thinking of nationalist archaeology—Hitler vs Indiana Jones. An ethnic classification was identifiable in the late 19th century at the end of the Napoleonic wars, amass fascist changes in the early 20th century. The Industrial Revolution was nearing the end of its peak by 1840[1]. Meanwhile, though nationalism has a much older history, modern Eastern European nationalism was at the beginning of a new life during WWI. The pinnacle of Slavophobia occurred during WWII when Nazi Germany classified the Polish to be primitive people and vowed to exterminate almost all Slavs[2]. Nationalism and ethnic separatism were the results of the fears Europeans had towards the anticipated threat of cultural homogenization, the significance in archaeological research on regional developments, and the native developments in prehistory.

Ethnicity in the Formation of Nation-States

Ethnicity and nationalism are closely related, insofar, nationalism was based on true or assumed ethnic ties[3]. However, nationalism was more akin to ideological and political depth, such as the expressed desire of a people to establish and maintain sovereignty. When ethnicity became nationalist, the result was the rise of ethnonational. Consequently, was proven

threatening for the existence of the state and lead to ethnic conflict and fragmentation, such as the case of Yugoslavia[4]. The ethnic balance of former Yugoslavia has frequently caused conflict and political weakness since the Middle Ages. The volatile medieval kingdoms, frequently embellished in modern nationalist historiography, were ultimately replaced by the Ottoman and Habsburg Empires in the 15th and 17th centuries respectively and ruled until the end of World War I[5]. After a short period of political uncertainty, a united political entity surfaced in 1945 under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito, who enforced a form of socialist dictatorship independent from the Soviet Union.

An ethnic conflict erupted again in 1990, mainly between Albanians, Catholic Croats, Orthodox Serbs, and Muslim Bosnians, from the rise to nationalist excitement—the course of Yugoslavian decentralization is still in process with Kosovo, the sixth to claim independence from the federation. Modernistically, nationalist excitement in the Balkans appeared for the first time in the late 18th and 19th century against the Ottomans and the Austrians, when a similar movement was happening in other European regions. Parallel to these events, Balkan archaeology appeared and developed in this period as a political instrument under control of Slav patriots—medieval archaeology developed because of the medieval roots of ethnic rivalries[6].

The two eras of Yugoslav archaeology agreed to the two main political phases of the area. During the period in which the Serbs had a chief role in united Yugoslavia (1945-1990), politics engaged archaeology for supporting the idea of a pan-Slav reality. In the 1950s, many early Slavonic sites were excavated in northern Slovenia, in the identical place where archaeologists of the Ahnenerbe (the Nazi 'Ancestral Heritage Society') hunted for evidence of German occupation. This effort, to compare the abuse of history that justified German war crimes, was unavoidably approached with the same theoretical methodology. Concurrently, another project on Slavonic settlements was being finalized in the Yugoslav-occupied Zone B of the Trieste Territory, refuted by Italy[7]. Anew, following the first Albanian ferments in 1981, there was a sizable increase in excavations and surveys promoted by the Serbian Academy of Science and Art, which proved to be a long Serb occupation. [8]The archaeological documents produced by this institution have been the intellectual vindication for Slobodan Milosevic's genocide policies.

After the start of the second phase, each republic became independent. Archaeology was selected for the identification of ethnic-specific detail in the archaeological landscape—coincidentally, ethnic groups started identifying themselves with non-Slav cultures and symbols, seeking aspects which could wholly recognize them from the other Slavs, including the adoption of a different alphabet. Respectfully, two cases are distinctly relevant. The first one involved Slovenia and its development since the mid-1980s of native theories on the origin of Slovenians, allegedly to be either Etruscan or Venetian[9]. The second case came from the Republic of Macedonia: a new country whose name and flag caused contention with Greece. Macedonia was the name of an ancient civilization and three modern Greek regions. The naming of the Republic after them was an appropriation of present and past Greek cultural factors, despite a possible claim of land. Regarding the flag, the sixteen-pointed star of Vergina, traceable on many archaeological finds, was an obvious inclination to identify with Alexander's Macedonia[10].

Excavation Methods and Materials

Cultural art, clothing, physical structures, currency, tools, weapons, human remains, and other artifacts can tell us about the geography of a few certain ethnic groups; their lifestyles, religions, and even political systems. Cultural heritage was represented through the banknotes of Croatia, the landscape in Bosnia, and through the discovery of pyramids in Sarajevo. Egregious

misinterpretations of the archaeological record were made and improved by the theoretical methodology implemented recently in the Balkans. In this method, material culture (ceramic typologies and styles) was used to spot ethnic groups. Development in the data was explained through migrations or invasions, as a result, with the advent of a new people. The importance of gathered materials from ethnic groups was evidence of their existence. The result was the building of representational calendars, which determined 'impermeable' cultures in time and space, using ethnicity as an organizing standard[11]. Themes like ethnic and linguistic designs and territorial conflicts were often contacted by Yugoslav archaeologists. For instance, Draga Garasamin (1972) concluded that the Bronze Age evolved as a very important stage in the process of formation of the Paleobalkan peoples, their ethnogenesis, and the historical events that have left their imprint, in a sense on the historical evolution of the old Balkans[12]. [13]Scarcely isolated figures, such as the prehistorians France Stare and Stane Gabrovec and the medievalist Bogo Grafenauer, attempted and opposed this methodology, coordinating themselves with the position of most archaeologists in Western Europe and America.

In Slovenia and Croatia, where the conflict had been less messy, there was room for the development of the discipline, but positions and methods were abandoned. However, manipulation of the cultural heritage was not. One of the best devices for the dissipation of state ideology was the symbolism articulated on coins and banknotes: copious notes issued by countries all over the world have elements of their cultural heritage as the central theme. [14]The reverse of the 20 kuna banknote looks like a narrative of Croatian recent history, along with an act of control of the details depicted. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, there is a similar reference to the historical landscape on the Bosnian variant of banknotes, where the typical and extensive medieval carved tombstones (stecci) are characterized. The role played by the cultural heritage in Bosnia is still heterogenous today, as mirrored by the current political and ethnic situation. The case of the multiethnic town of Pocitelj is symbolic: here the restoring of the historical Centre, led by the University of York, had attempted to abuse the archaeological excavations undertaken. Christian Croats prevented the reconstruction of a mosque destroyed because it was alleged to be rebuilt on the site of a Christian church, and any information supporting Christian roots of the settlement was cause for disputes and provocations[15]. A better-known reconstruction was of the Stari Most (Old Bridge) in Mostar, it was bombed and ruined for its symbolic value. Perhaps the most significant event was the 'discovery' of the pyramids of Visoko, near Sarajevo. Here, the amateur archaeologist Semir Osmanagic maintained the presence of an ancient great pyramid complex; the questionable and manipulated evidence upholding this discovery confirmed the skepticism from academics, and the entire case appeared to be an attempt to create a national monument for the Bosnians and to promote tourism[16].

The case of Yugoslav ethicists presented a contention in the process of archaeology, specifically in the way archaeologists should have interacted with politics and society. The pursuit for an impartial path proposed an impossible task. Archaeologists are humans and citizens of nation-states, so, they determined speculation about the past from their present situation. It remained the predicament that even the most professional archaeological interpretation can be commanded by politics or society, as the Pocitelj case indicated. Besides, in some socio-political contexts, when archaeology cultivated into a cognizant, independent discipline, a loss of interest and money from the public and the State was occasionally noticed. As Novakovic and Slapšak wrote, "Archaeology can avoid nationalism, but nationalism cannot do without archaeology," and despite any effort, archaeological work will always be political.

Nationalism requires the elaboration of a real or invented past...how archaeological data are manipulated for nationalist purposes. - Philip Kohl

The Myth of Mass Suicide at Masada

As mentioned earlier, there is no official definition of 'nationalism' and history is neither true nor false. During the creation or retelling of historical narratives, certain events can be told from bias, interpretation depends on individuals, and unintentional mistakes are made. One of the most well-known tales in Judaism is the tale of the group suicide of Masada. In 73/74 CE, nine hundred sixty Jewish men, women, and children committed suicide on top of the mountain of Masada near the Dead Sea in Israel in preference of being captured by the Romans. The fable, told by the Roman historian Josephus, is one of the most acclaimed from antiquity, but did it really happen? The late Yigael Yadin, Israeli archaeologist from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem excavated the site in the mid-1960s[17]. Yadin said that the objects found during his dig proved that the mass suicide occurred. In 1995 and 2002, Nachman Ben-Yehuda, a sociologist also at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, unearthed that Yadin had been flawed in his interpretations, possibly even intentionally for an imagined nationalist narrative to help the young state of Israel forge an identity for itself.

Masada also served as a warning about using or misusing archaeological evidence to reinforce a nationalistic agenda. The debate over Masada involved the reliability of Josephus’s account; the credibility of Yadin, conceivably the most recognized of all Israeli archaeologists; and the influence of nationalism on the interpretation of archaeological revelations. The conflicting interpretations from scholars raised more questions about the historical events that took place before other logical recoveries could tell a different story. Whom do we believe? How should we view this apparently tragic, heart-wrenching ancient site and event? Can evidence be amassed from thousands of years ago to establish the ancestry, legal properties, and birthright of peoples today?

The work that Yadin managed at Masada over two excavation seasons–from October 1963 to May 1964, and again from November 1964 to April 1965–was a breakthrough for archaeology in many ways. For instance, Yadin was the first to utilize international volunteers to help dig the site. The total numbers that took part are also impressive–Yadin maintained to have had no less than 300 volunteers digging at Masada at any moment during his excavations. About 50,000 cubic yards of dirt was sifted–the first time that all the dirt had been sifted at an excavation in Israel. Consequently, numerous small items were found that may have been missed contrarily, including hundreds of coins, pieces of pottery with inscriptions on them, and small pieces of jewelry such as rings and beads[18]. The coins permitted Yadin to date the remains that they were uncovering precisely–especially the coins that had been made just a few years earlier during the First Jewish Revolt.

It was not a mass suicide, it was a mass slaughter. Josephus, wrote to Rome using notes and daybooks from the present commanding officers, may have been ordered to whitewash the events. There was evidence that Josephus took the story that he told about the men killing their families (ten men killing the others), and finally, one man killing the final persons, from his own experience. Several years earlier, in 67 CE, during the first rebellion against Rome, Josephus was a Jewish general fighting the Romans at a site called Jotapata. They managed to hold off the Romans for forty-seven days, then he and forty others took refuge in a cave, where they decided to commit suicide. Josephus, however, did not commit suicide, he surrendered[19].

The false archaeological discoveries affected the nationalism of the State of Israel. The suicides were viewed as dignifying for the Israeli to take control of how they were going to die. When the country was not yet a nation, it was nationalistic, more so than being overpowered by the Romans. Yadin's version of what happened at Masada described the Roman Army, under the leadership of Julius Caesar, as unintelligent and weak. Roman military strategy demanded legionnaires to persist in the advantage whenever and wherever they acquired it, regardless of the time of day or night[20]. Control of the past provides a source of legitimization for control of the future” - Philip Kohl

Nazi's Creation of the 'Master Race'

Another notable myth, perhaps the most infamous, is the Nazi party's attempt to prove that Aryans are the master race. The Nazis had their own version of Yadin; Heinrich Himmler, assistant head of the Gestapo, chief of the SS, and the architect behind Hitler's plan to exterminate European Jews[21]. In 1935, Himmler founded the Abnenerbe, (as previously mentioned) a Nazi research institute whose purpose was to find new evidence of the accomplishments of German ancestors by using scientific methods. The institute studied rock engravings, ancient text, and folklore. Himmler would eventually create an Excavations Department to direct archaeological digs at major landmarks in Germany. SS men were trained in archaeology to recover the ancient Germanic past by digging. The Excavations Department brought new scientific comprehension to nationalist archaeology. The Abnenerbe included amateur archaeologists trained to analyze very small bits of ancient stone, bone, and ceramics. Himmler hoped that would help regenerate the lives of Germany's ancestors before their first written documentation and to spread knowledge of the legendary "Nordic" race.

The Abnenerbe did not actually find honest evidence. Instead, prominent researchers distorted the truth and created evidence in support of Hitler's belief in a 'master class'. Hitler believed in a fictional Aryan "Nordic" race; tall, platinum blonde men and women from Northern Europe with the brilliance to create civilization. Archaeologists could not find physical evidence of a master race who gave birth to all humankind. Hitler claimed that most Germans were descendants of ancient Nordics. To please Hitler, Himmler hired young and intelligent novices to reveal a new portrait of the ancient world of Aryans delivering light to inferior races—the hired young men illustrated Hitler's claim that Aryans conceived civilization, therefore, are the master class.

The swastika is the most well-known symbol in the world, representing the evils of the Third Rule of Germany (Third Reich), and its lesser-known history appropriated by Adolf Hitler. It has been used as a symbol of 'good fortune' all around the world from Japan to India, England, Greece, and even Germany to name a few places. The oldest swastika was found in Ukraine, dated 12,000 years. Ironically, the earliest use of the swastika dates back 8,000 years to the Vinca Culture in the geographic area where now lies Serbia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Croatia. Thousands of years later, Nazis would flip the symbol for 'good fortune' literally and metaphorically. In 1868, the German merchant and archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann thought he had recovered the ancient Greek city of Troy, and so excavations followed a few years later. Over 18,000 swastika-like symbols were uncovered among pottery fragments on all archaeological levels of Troy. For Schliemann and the nationalists, that was evidence of continuity of race, therefore, the ancient people of Troy must have been Aryan[22]. The swastika was also present among the archaeological remains of the Germanic tribes discovered by Himmler's team, because of this connection nationalists jumped to the conclusion that the Germans and the Greeks were both descendants of the Aryans. The once ancient global symbol of purity was now a symbol of Nazi power, nationalist feelings, and set a boundary between non-German or non-Aryan identity and German.

Nationalists had already appropriated the religious symbol of good fortune, prosperity, and purity for Germans at the end of WWI before it was attached to the Nazi party. The anti-Semitics, Thule Society, sponsored the Nazi party and to gain more visibility. They designed a banner in the colors of the recently defeated Germany; black, white, and red with a modernized swastika at center. Hitler claimed, in Mein Kampf, to having designed the banner entirely on his own and adapted meaning to the colors and swastika on the banner; the red symbolized social ideology within the movement, white was for nationalism, and the swastika was the symbol of the struggle for the victory of Aryan men[23]. The banner successfully became the visual identity of the Nazi movement while the Nazis united the country with their racist Aryan ideology.

Patriotism and nationalism became interchangeable as the swastika saturated Germany. In 1933, Joseph Goebbels (Hitler's minister of propaganda) prohibited the unauthorized use of the hooked swastika. By 1933, the Nazi party's banner became the national flag of Germany until 1945[24]. Since the collapse of the Third Reich, public displays of the Nazi swastika and salute are illegal in Germany but are still used to represent white supremacist groups worldwide. Perhaps the evils of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi party were so abhorrent that the appropriation of the swastika can never be reversed, at least in the Western world.

Mussolini's Fascist Archaeology Projects

During the same time that the Nazi party was rising, Benito Mussolini and his fascist regime came to power in Italy in 1922[25]. The fascists Hitler and Mussolini both used archaeology to manipulate the minds of their countries' citizens. Hitler, by claiming that archaeological discoveries proved Germans to be descendants of the 'Master Race'. Mussolini, by rebuilding ancient Rome and signing his name across the city while doing so. When Mussolini came to power, his goal was to prove to the rest of the Western world that Italy could recover from WWI, pull itself out of political and economic decline, and encapsulate its strength and power. To do so, Mussolini reconstructed the political system into an authoritative totalitarian regime, promoted the rights of the agrarian population, heightened censorship, and became a part of the Axis of Evil with Hitler and Stalin. Mussolini used excavations and reconstructions of ancient Roman archaeological sites, as well as new monumental architecture to transform the city of Rome into a physical setting to show that the Fascist state was the lineal descendant of the ancient Roman empire[26].

In the twenty years that Mussolini ruled, he reorganized and redeveloped Rome by designing buildings, bridges, and roads, which strengthened the cities of Italy's fascist identity. He added momentous new public buildings that supported his fascist ideology with a strong national identity. Significant monuments were effective because they idolized both the Fascist regime and united the party to ancient Rome. Old Rome connected to the new Roman Empire was coined, "Mystical fervor". The name indicated that renovations in Rome were extraordinary, not only for its original strength but chiefly for its resurrection and its endurance. The city was no longer expressions of the will of single individuals and political alchemies, but expressions of virtually subliminal strength. The inception of the racial politics added a biological aspect to the theme, perchance.

One of many archaeological excavations ordered by Mussolini, the ancient sporting events venue, Circus Maximus, was full of rubble until Mussolini began to uncover the historic site. A series of exhibits were held at the Circus, which promoted nationalism through fascist art. In 1936, Mussolini's vision of interconnecting architectural form to fascism through a design of the EUR (Esposizione Universale Roma), a city outside of Rome, was fulfilled. The city plan used a style called Italian Rationalism, a functional system of wide roads organized in an orderly symmetrical style, rhythm, and proportion. The city has several outdoor sculptures, arches, colonnades, and an obelisk to summon the strong regional history and unite the people. Transit projects taken on by Mussolini included the major streets, bridges, and train stations of Via del Mar, Via dell'impero, Via della Conciliazione, Termi station, and the Ponte Ottobre[27]. The goal of these projects was to turn Rome into a fully modern efficient city with a strong cultural identity with clear visual bonds between historic landmarks. The existing Via dei Fori Imperiale, a four-lane boulevard at the heart of the city’s most prominent ancient excavations, is practically a monument. To those familiar with the history of the city, this road is more than just a central monument. It was one of the ways that fascist leader, Benito Mussolini, signed his name across the city. In one dramatic destructive act, he related himself to the ancient Roman emperors, modernized the city for the automobile, and created a massive open space for his crazed balcony speeches. Hitler was welcomed as if he were the Pope, along the avenue in 1938, celebrating the newfound alliance between Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.

There are two eras of Rome; the republican Rome and the imperialist Rome. The republic preceded the civil wars, had people that were focused on the State life, and the State was defined as “totalitarian”. In the imperial time State Life disappeared, and with its disappearance, corruption began[28]. However, the empire offered the model of a stable global domination, of an ideal Rome that had, after the traumas of the civil wars, had recovered order and discipline. It was obvious after the second conquest of Ethiopia (1936); the dominant model could only be the imperial one. The conquest of Ethiopia represented the moment of the greatest success of a utopian Rome. The dictatorship now appeared justified by history, and the concept of the nation took on a Roman-imperial character.

Italy never censored Mussolini the way Germany condemned Hitler and the Nazis. Numerous Italians, under the influence of post-war efforts (supported by the United States) to purge the far left from political life, debated that it was possible to part all that was good about Mussolini in his first decade in power, from his “mistakes” later in the 1930s. The good that Italian residents refer to is the structural recovery of ancient Rome, housing complexes, hospitals, and schools that have not been demolished, despite Mussolini's signatures. Were the invasion and poisonous gassing of a fellow League of Nations member, Ethiopia, worth the sacrifice? He also allowed Italian Jews to be deported and killed, some of whom had supported Fascism. Mussolini dragged his country into WWII knowing that he did not have an army strong enough to defeat the British or the Russians. He was responsible for over 200k deaths in the war[29]. The death toll included when he was rescued by the Germans and Hitler placed in charge of a puppet government in North Italy, adding to the suffering of Italians. Perhaps a simplified history by some current Italians was a convenient consensus that allowed them to avoid the political dissonance of real debate about the legacy of Fascism.

Conclusion

The extensive archaeological history of nationalism and the deeply horrific crimes against humanity sometimes led to a conceptualization that race is biological; therefore, racism will always exist. When in fact, archaeological excavations and anthropological research in other areas of academia have proven that both race and gender are political constructs[30]. Today, nationalism in Eastern Europe looks like: Germany currently has laws censoring Nazi party propaganda, but at least one nationalist party is thriving. Founded by a former member of Angela Merkel's Democratic Union Party, Alexander Gauland led the Alternative für Deutschland (AfD) party into the German parliament. The AfD is the third strongest political party[31], after the Holocaust, Israel became a highly self-aware nationalistic society, where the Jewish autonomy of Zionism fused together with the new State of Israel. According to the definition in Article 6 Statute set by the International Crime Court, the extermination of the people in the West Bank is genocide. Approximately 85, 000, 000 people have died since the 1950 occupation and ethnic cleansing of Palestinians[32]. The most alarming update comes from Italy's fascist group, CasaPound, who have grown from 23 offices to 106 since 2003. They are dangerous, not only for their popularity but because they are trying to win seats in parliament[33].

When seeing stories of nationalists and extremists today, it is common to feel a little panic and fear, no matter where a person is from. History has shown over and over how violent humans can be, but there is also the beauty that is often ignored. Today, a better understanding of the ideologies of nationalism has been learned throughout the course through studying: culture, tradition, national myths, politics and national leaders. The question is not whether racism can be eradicated, but what the future of nationalism could look like in the future and precedence for controlling harrowing political constructs.

Bibliography

Diaz-Andreu, M. & Champion, T., Nationalism and Archaeology in Europe. H-Net Reviews in

The Humanities & Social Sciences. 1996. https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?

id=1310

Barakat, S., Kojakovic, M, Simcic, V. S. and Wilson, C., Challenges and Dilemmas Facing the

Reconstruction of War-damaged Cultural Heritage: The Case Study of Pocitelj, Bosnia-Herzegovina (London: Routledge, 2001), 168.

Ben-Yehuda, N., Masada Myth: Collective Memory and Mythmaking in Israel

(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, December 1995).

Boissoneault, L., "The Man Who Brought the Swastika to Germany, and How the Nazis Stole

It," Smithsonian Magazine, April 2017, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/man-

who-brought-swastika-germany-and-how-nazis-stole-it-180962812/.

Calhoun, C., "Nationality and Ethnicity," Annual Review of Sociology vol. 19 (1993): 211-39,

Accessed 7 May 2018, http://www.columbia.edu/itc/sipa/U6800/readings-sm/

calhoun.pdf.

Cohen, M., "Mussolini's Influence on Rome," Umass, 2010, https://courses.umass.edu/latour/Ital

y/Mussolini/index.html.

Curta, F., Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

2006), 500-507.

Etlin, R., "Modernism in Italian Architecture, 1890-1940," (Cambridge: MIT Press. 392, 1991).

The Genocide of the Palestinian People: An International Law and Human Rights Perspective,

CCR. Last modified 25 August 2016, https://ccrjustice.org/genocide-palestinian-people-international-law-and-human-rights-perspective.

Giardina, A., "The Fascist Myth of Romanity," Estudos Avancados 22, no. 62 (2008), Accessed

5 May 2018, http://www.scielo.br/pdf/ea/v22n62/en_a05v2262.pdf.

Göpffarth, J., "How Alternative für Deutschland is trying to resurrect German nationalism," New Statesman, September 2017,

https://www.newstatesman.com/world/europe/2017/09/how-

alternative-f-r-deutschland-trying-resurrect-german-nationalism

. Hvaal, M., "The Mystery of Bosnia's Ancient Pyramids," Smithsonian Magazine, December

2009, Accessed 7 May 2018, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-mystery-of-bosnias-ancient-pyramids-148990462/.

Jelavich, B., History of the Balkans (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 3-47.

Jones, T., "The Fascist Movement that has Brough Mussolini Back to the Mainstream," The

Guardian, February 2018, Accessed 12 May 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/feb/22/casapound-italy-mussolini-fascism-mainstream.

Kaiser, A., Archaeology and ideology in southeast Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1994), 99-119.

Kjölstad, H., White Russia – Xenophobia, Extreme Nationalism, and Race Radicalism as

Threats to Society. Swedish Defense Research Agency, April 2009, file:///C:/Users/Palina/Downloads/http___webbrapp.ptn.foi.se_pdf_2ddbd79c-a710-4a67-9d32-251bfbf6d479%20(1).pdf

Kohl, P., Nationalism, Politics and the Practice of Archaeology (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1995).

Kohl, P., Kozelsky M., Ben-Yehuda N., Selective Remembrances: Archaeology in the

Construction, Commemoration, and Consecration of National Pasts (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007).

Kolaric, M., The Bronze Age of Serbia (Beograd: Narodni Muzej, 1972).

Novaković, P. and Slapšak, B., Is there National Archaeology without Nationalism?

Archaeological tradition in Slovenia (London: UCL Press, 1996), 256-293.

Plumer, H., "Gender in Mesoamerica: Interpreting Gender Roles in Classic Maya Society," The

Collegiate Journal of Anthropology, 1, no. 1 (November 2011): Accessed 12 May 2018, http://anthrojournal.com/issue/october-2011/article/gender-in-mesoamerica-interpreting-gender-roles-in-classic-maya-society.

Polish Victims (United States Holocaust Encyclopedia, 2016), https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/ar

ticle.php?ModuleId=10005473.

Pringle, H., "Hitler's Willing Archaeologists." Archaeological Institute of America 59, no. 2

(March/April 2006), https://archive.archaeology.org/0603/abstracts/nazis.html.

Quinn, M., The Swastika: Constructing the Symbol (England: Taylor & Francis Group, 1997),

134.

Shah, S., "Ethnic Conflict in Former Yugoslavia," Pakistan Institute of International Affairs 46,

no. 1, (1993): 61-71. Accessed 4 May 2018. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41393412?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents.

Smith, W., "Flag of Germany." Encyclopedia Britannica, February 2017.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag-of-Germany.

Milhisvis, Imperial Roman Army – Organization & Structure, Military History Visualized. April

2016. http://militaryhistoryvisualized.com/imperial-roman-army-organization-structure/.

Xenophobia (UNESCO, 2017), http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-

sciences/themes/international-migration/glossary/xenophobia/.

Wallace, W., American Revolution (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2018),

https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution.

Wasserstein, B. Barbarism & Civilization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).

Welch, D., Propaganda for Patriotism and Nationalism, British Library, January 201,

https://www.bl.uk/world-war-one/articles/patriotism-and-nationalism.

[1] Wallace, W., American Revolution (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2018), https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Revolution.

[2] Polish Victims, (United States Holocaust Encyclopedia, 2016), https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005473.

[3] Calhoun, C., "Nationality and Ethnicity," Annual Review of Sociology vol. 19 (1993): 211-39. Accessed 7 May 2018. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/sipa/U6800/readings-sm/calhoun.pdf.

[4] Shah, S. "Ethnic Conflict in Former Yugoslavia," Pakistan Institute of International Affairs 46, no. 1. (1993): 61-71, Accessed 4 May 2018, https://www.jstor.org/stable/41393412?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents.

[5] Jelavich, B., History of the Balkans. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 3-47.

[6] Kaiser, A., Archaeology and ideology in southeast Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 99-119.

[7] Curta, F., Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 500-507.

[8] Kaiser, "Archaeology and Ideology" (see footnote 6).

[9] Novaković, P., and Slapšak, B., Is there national archaeology without nationalism? Archaeological tradition in Slovenia (London: UCL Press, 1996), 256-293.

[10] Kohl, P., "Nationalism and Archaeology: On the Constructions of Nations and the Reconstructions of the Remote Past," Annual Review of Anthropology 27 (1998): 223-246.

[11] Curta, F., "Southeastern Europe," (see footnote 7).

[12] Kolaric, M., The Bronze Age of Serbia (Beograd: Narodni Muzej, 1972).

[13] Novaković and Slapšak, "Nationalism Archaeology?" (see footfoot 9).

[14] Kaiser, A., "Archaeology and ideology," (see footnote 6).

[15] Barakat, S., Kojakovic, M, Simcic, V. S. and Wilson, C., Challenges and Dilemmas Facing the Reconstruction of War-damaged Cultural Heritage: The Case Study of Pocitelj, Bosnia-Herzegovina (London: Routledge, 2001), 168.

[16] Hvaal, M., "The Mystery of Bosnia's Ancient Pyramids," Smithsonian Magazine, December 2009, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-mystery-of-bosnias-ancient-pyramids-148990462/, Accessed 7 May 2018.

[17] Ben-Yehuda, N., Masada Myth: Collective Memory and Mythmaking in Israel (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, December 1995).

[18] Diaz-Andreu, M. & Champion, T., Nationalism and Archaeology in Europe. H-Net Reviews in The Humanities & Social Sciences, 1996, https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=1310.

[19] Kohl, P., Nationalism, Politics and the Practice of Archaeology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).

[20]Milhisvis, Imperial Roman Army Organization & Structure, Military History Visualized, April 2016, http://militaryhistoryvisualized.com/imperial-roman-army-organization-structure/.

[21] Pringle, H., "Hitler's Willing Archaeologists," Archaeological Institute of America 59, no. 2 (March/April 2006), https://archive.archaeology.org/0603/abstracts/nazis.html.

[22] Quinn, M., The Swastika: Constructing the Symbol (England: Taylor & Francis Group,1997), 134.

[23] Boissoneault, L., "The Man Who Brought the Swastika to Germany, and How the Nazis Stole It," Smithsonian Magazine, April 2017, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/man-who-brought-swastika-germany-and-how-nazis-stole-it-180962812/.

[24] Smith, W., "Flag of Germany," Encyclopedia Britannica, February 2017, https://www.britannica.com/topic/flag-of-Germany.

[25] Cohen, M., "Mussolini's Influence on Rome, " Umass, 2010, https://courses.umass.edu/latour/Italy/

Mussolini/index.html.

[26] Etlin, R., "Modernism in Italian Architecture, 1890-1940," (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1991), 392.

[27]Perrottet, T., "The Glory that is Rome," Smithsonian Magazine, October 2005, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-glory-that-is-rome-70425698/.

[28] Giardina, A., "The Fascist Myth of Romanity," Estudos Avancados 22, no. 62 (2008), Accessed 5 May 2018, http://www.scielo.br/pdf/ea/v22n62/en_a05v2262.pdf.

[29]Perrottet, T., "Glory Rome," (see footnote 28).

[30] Plumer, H., "Gender in Mesoamerica: Interpreting Gender Roles in Classic Maya Society," The Collegiate Journal of Anthropology, 1, no. 1 (November 2011): Accessed 12 May 2018, http://anthrojournal.com/issue/october-2011/article/gender-in-mesoamerica-interpreting-gender-roles-in-classic-maya-society

[31]

Göpffarth, J., "How Alternative für Deutschland is trying to resurrect German nationalism," New Statesman, September 2017,

https://www.newstatesman.com/world/europe/2017/09/how-

alternative-f-r-deutschland-trying-resurrect-german-nationalism

[32] "The Genocide of the Palestinian People: An International Law and Human Rights Perspective," CCR. Last modified 25 August 2016, https://ccrjustice.org/genocide-palestinian-people-international-law-and-human-rights-perspective.

[33] Jones, T., "The Fascist Movement that has Brough Mussolini Back to the Mainstream," The Guardian, February 2018, Accessed 12 May 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/feb/22/casapound-italy-mussolini-fascism-mainstream.

1 note · View note