#3rdcentury

[whencyclopedia]

Food in the Roman World

The ancient Mediterranean diet revolved around four staples, which, even today, continue to dominate restaurant menus and kitchen tables: cereals, vegetables, olive oil and wine. Seafood, cheese, eggs, meat and many types of fruit were also available to those who could afford it. The Romans were also adept at processing and conserving their food using techniques from pickling to storage in honey. Flavouring food with sauces, herbs and exotic spices was another important element of Roman food preparation. Our knowledge of just what the Romans ate and how has been gathered from texts, wall-paintings and mosaics, and even the remains of the food itself from sites such as Pompeii.

Cereals

Cereals made up the bulk of most people's diet with wheat and barley being the most common and used especially to make bread and porridge. Bread was generally coarse and dark in colour, the better quality loaves being less dark and finer in texture. Innovations in grinding mills and finer sieves helped improve the fineness of flour over time but it remained much coarser than modern standards. Besides wheat and barley, oats, rye, and millets were also available.

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The Prayer/ Meditation: Ana BeKho’aḥ – The Name of 42 Letters

The prayer ‘Ana BeKho’aḥ‘ is based on what is known among Kabbalists as ‘The Name of 42 Letters’, this powerful combination of letters in famous for its holiness, and is known to give the ability to overcome obstacles and judgments, the illusion of matter and the limitations of logic.

Sources and Meaning



Ana BeKo’ah Amulet / Persia, 18th Century / Israel Museum

The prayer known as ‘Ana BeKho’aḥ’  is attributed to the rabbinic sage Rabbi Nehunia Ben Hakana, known also as the author of Sefer Hakana, one of the earliest Books on Kabbalah (1st century CE). Like many prayers in the Siddur, this prayer is named after its first two words. This important prayer has seven verses and is sealed by the eighth line Barukh shem kevod malkhuto le’olam va’ed (Blessed is His glorious name His kingdom is forever) that is also used after the first line of the Shema Yisrael prayer.

This Hebrew prayer appears in every Siddur (Prayer Book) in many places:

In the beginning of Shaḥarit, the morning prayer- in the section that recites the Morning Temple Offerings (Korbanot)

In Kabbalat Shabbat (welcoming the Sabbath) before the song Lekha Dodi.

In the Bedtime Shema

It is recited during the funeral service.

The Name of 42 Letters

Each of the 7 verses of the “Ana BeKho’aḥ” prayer has 6 words. That 42 letter sequence is made up from the first letter of each word (acrostic) of the prayer and comprises what is known in Kabbalah as ‘The Name of 42 Letters’, one of the most important names of the Creator.

Rabbi Neḥunia Ben Hakana, like other rabbinic sages in his era, 1st – 3rdCentury CE, feared the potential loss of knowledge and secrets of the Torah (seeing the exile and The Dark Ages coming) and sought to preseve it for future generations. This was the reason that Our Sages wrote down the Mishna, the Zohar and, afterwards, the Talmud. The prayer “Ana BeKho’aḥ” was a way of encoding and hiding The Name of 42 Letters in the Siddur, (prayer book). Until this day few know the secret of this prayer.

The Acrostic – the sequence of the first letter of each word of each of the 7 verses appears in many prayer books alongside its corresponding line.

According to the Zohar one reads the words in pairs while also concentrating on the first letters (initials) in pairs. This is because every combination of 6 initials (first letters of each word of a line) corresponds to the 6 wings of the Seraphim (Angels, Isaiah 6:20), and the wings of the Seraphim are placed in pairs. The purpose of this prayer, in principle, is to elevate our mundane world and our mundane, limited consciousness (Malkhut, Asiya) to higher levels.

Origin of ‘The Name of 42 Letters’

The Name of 42 Letters existed from the dawn of creation and is encrypted in the first 42 letters of the story of creation in Genesis, from the Bet (the first letter in the Torah) of Beresheet until the letter bet of Vavohu. A complex mathematical formula transforms the first 42 letters of Genesis into the holy Name of 42.



Home Protection – Ana BeKho’aḥ Wall Tapestry

 

 

The Powers of ‘The Name of 42 Letters’

The power of the ‘Name of 42’ endows the user with the ability to transcend from the illusions and limitations of physicality with its’ emptiness, and the restrictions that are associated with our reality.  These limitations force us to have to make an effort to elevate above them in order to connect to true spirituality. Usage of this name is essential to the process of spiritual elevation.

Because of the Kavana (meditation, meaning and intention) of this holy name, the times to recite it are:

Shaḥarit – The Morning Prayer, after reciting the Korbanot (temple offerings) in order to allow elevation to the upper realms or worlds in the beginning of this important morning connection.

Friday night, before Lekha Dodi. At this time the worlds ascend and we need this prayer to help us ascend to Shabbat

Sephirat Ha’Omer – The Counting of The Omer.

Bed Time Shema – before going to bed, in order to support the soul  who needs to ascend to the place of quarry or well of souls (according to the Tikunei HaZohar)

Before a person departs this world, when a person feels that his time to depart has come, after the Vidui (confession & confirmation).

During the funeral service, in order to help the deceased to elevate to the upper worlds.

Any time there’s a need to elevate above the confusion and stress of daily struggle.

The most common way Kabbalists meditate on the ‘Name of 42’ is by contemplating on the 6 initials formed from the first letter of each word of each of the seven verses.

Sephirot

Each sequence of the 7 acrostics of the seven verses of the Ana BeKho’aḥ has the ability to connect us to one Sephira or a spiritual dimension above the illusionary and physical world. Using each permutation is like a secret password that enables us to access the treasure chamber in the upper worlds filled with light, power, energy and wisdom.

According to the wisdom of Kabbalah each one of the seven sequences controls a range of aspects of our reality. The seven Sephirot are expressed in the material world in many forms, for example, the spiritual dimensions that control each of the seven planets or one of the seven days of the week.

It is written in the Gate of Meditations (Sha’ar HaKavanot), of the Writings of the ARI, the holy ARI of Tsfat (Safed), that without the prayer Ana BeKho’aḥ, one would not be able to elevate from the physical world and ascend to higher levels of meditation or prayer. Therefore it is worthwhile to recite the ‘Ana BeKho’aḥ’ every morning before we start our daily actions. Because of its great importance, ‘The Name of 42’, the Ana BeKho’aḥ, is encoded in every important prayer in the Hebrew Prayer Book, and through this we are allowed  to elevate to much higher spiritual levels and to control the channels of abundance that are so important for the success of our lives. ‘Success’ is achieved when we experience a flow of abundance and good fortune, meaning a manifestation of ongoing flow of spiritual energy from the higher worlds to all aspects of our lives, both material and physical.

The power of exercising this prayer/meditation, the Ana BeKho’aḥ, every morning, according to the teachings of the holy Ari, is to elevate us up and above the illusory physical world, above our limited perceptions (thinking within the box) and above our limited and used up belief systems. The result will be newly acquired abilities to break through and to reach higher levels of consciousness that will result in more elevated ways of experiencing our reality and a higher awareness – different and more fulfilling.

It is possible to use this prayer during the day without limit, not only in the beginning of the day. It can be used before any important task, when a challenging problem appears or at any time there’s a need to connect to higher, more elevated levels (worlds). Connecting to the higher worlds where an abundance of wisdom and life force is flowing is what allows us to change and grow in quantum leaps. The Ana BeKho’aḥ prayer helps us to open up (and receive) the bliss that is needed in order to achieve true positive change.

Throughout the generations, the Ana BeKho’aḥ prayer was very important to the Kabbalists who knew how to use the enormous power of the holy and powerful letters’ combinations in order to improve their destiny, to elevate beyond the restrictions of logic and to fulfill the soul. Therefore it is possible to find the Ana BeKho’aḥ and its letter combinations, the ‘Name of 42’, on the walls of many old synagogues.

 



Atara – Tallit Collar Embroidery – Ana BeKo’aḥ

 

Kavana (meaning, meditation & intention) of the seven letter combination of the Ana BeKho’aḥ Prayer:

The first verse, Ḥesed:

אנא  בכח.  גדולת  ימינך.  תתיר  צרורה: אבג  יתץ

This verse connects us to the Sephira of Ḥesed (Loving-Kindness), the first of the seven Sephirot (of Ze’ir Anpin). The Sephira of Ḥesed represents the power of unconditional love, compassion and sharing. The numerical value of the acrostics of the words of this first verse אבג יתץ (506) equals אהבת  חנם – unconditional love. According to the Kabbalists, this verse has the power of all the other verses combined, and it connects us directly to the frequency of Ets Ḥaim  עץ חיים  The Tree of Life, a parallel universe where all are one, before the Fall of Adam, before the breaking of the world of unity. This is a reality of truth without the limitations of physicality, and without obstructions created by negative energy. By contemplating and meditating on this sequence of אבג יתץ we are connected to a reality of completion, true unity, and truth. Connection to this frequency focuses us on our true spiritual work. This sequence gives us the power to overcome the illusion of the limitations of space and time.

According to the Zohar this combination controls the cosmic window, among other things, to the planet Saturn and the zodiac signs of Capricorn and Aquarius (both controlled by Saturn).

The Second Verse, Gevura:

קבל  רנת.  עמך שגבנו.  טהרנו  נורא:  קרע  שטן

This verse connects to the Sephira of Gevura. The acrostics of the words of this verse are: קרע שטן. The power of this verse according to the ARI is to return to the state of perfection of the spiritual worlds that were torn and descended into the lower worlds. The power to tear up and cancel the illusion of Satan (negative) Consciousness in ourselves and to cancel or sweeten the judgments; the desire to receive for oneself alone, and all the judgments experienced by way of our anger, hatred or other negative, selfish emotions. We use this combination during the sounding of the Shofar on Rosh Hashana to cancel all the judgments according to the holy ARI.  The numeric value of the letters קרע שטן equals that of the word תשכח Tishkaḥ (728), to forget. We use this combination with the intention that we want to forget the limitations that the Satan Consciousness binds us to, limiting us by having the false belief that we are not able to overcome the limitations we are facing.

According to the Zohar this controls the cosmic window, among other things, to control the planet Jupiter and the zodiac signs of Sagittarius and Pisces.

The Third Verse, Tiferet:

נא  גיבור. דורשי  יחודך. כבבת  שמרם :  נגד יכש

This verse connects to the Sephira of Tiferet.

The acrostics of the words of this verse are: נגד יכש

There are two permutations in this sequence:

1. נגד has the numeric value of the word Zan (57). The number 57 represents spiritual abundance, and worldly livelihood. This combination signifies that the abundance will only flow into our lives when we resist our innate nature to take for ourselves alone. Only when we resist the sefishness and transform it to caring and sharing will we open and connect to the flow of abundance in all our actions.

2.  יכשappears in the verse מי שמך לאיש (Who made you our judge?). Moses used this combination in the Torah (Exodus 2:14) to kill the Egyptian, and its power is to take out of any living being the good sparks and light contained within their Klippot ( negative forces), in order that there not remain any life force for the evil within. In this situation the evil will wither and die and then the energy of life can be restored. This combination is able to help us renew and return ourselves to a pure, embryonic, state.

According to the Zohar this permutation controls the cosmic window, among other things to the planet Mars which controls the zodiac signs of Aries and Scorpio.

The fourth verse, Netsaḥ:

ברכם טהרם. רחמי צדקתך. תמיד גמלם.  בטר צתג

This verse connects to the Sephira of Netsaḥ.

The acrostics of the words of this verse are: בטר צתג.

From this verse we receive the spiritual ability to draw vision, confidence and certainty that are the prerequisite for true victory. This power enables us to rise up after we have stumbled, to finish what we started, to work vigorously, to overcome obstacles and remove all doubt in order to complete the most difficult tasks.

According to the Zohar, this permutation controls the cosmic window to the Sun, among other things, which controls the zodiac sign of Leo.

The fifth verse:

חסין קדוש. ברב טובך. נהל עדתך.  חקב  טנע

This verse connects to Sephira Hod.

The acrostics of the words of this verse are: חקב טנע.

This verse helps us in asking to see the secrets of the universe and the truth above logic and the five senses.

According to the Zohar this permutation controls the cosmic window to the planet Venus, among other things, which controls the zodiac signs of Taurus and Virgo.

The sixth verse:

יחיד גאה. לעמך פנה. זוכרי קדושתך. יגל  פזק

This verse connects to the Sephira of Yesod.

The acrostics of the words of this verse are: יגל פזק.

The numerical value of these six letters is 230 ירך  (– thigh, hip). This is the name for victory in every battle of life (The Book of Root of Names, Rabbi Moshe Zakut).

“This name reveals the Bliss that is coming through the Yesod, therefore, this name should be used in order to reveal the wisdom in the 6th millennium”. (Adir BaMarom, Rabbi Moshe Haim Luzzatto)

According to the Zohar this permutation controls the cosmic window to the planet Mercury, among other things, which controls the zodiac signs of Gemini and Virgo.

The seventh verse:

שוועתנו קבל. ושמע  צעקתנו. יודע תעלומות. שקו  צית

This verse connects to the Sephira Malkhut.

The acrostics of the words of this verse are: שקו צית.

This permutation connects to the treasure of endless fulfillment which is waiting for us in the final days. Connecting to this name gives us unlimited power in times when we are weak and empty.

According to the Zohar this permutation controls the cosmic window to the Moon, among other things, which contols the sign of Cancer.

After completing all seven verses,

ברוך שם כבוד מלכותו לעולם ועד

‘Barukh Shem Kevod Malkhuto LeOlam Va’ed’

is said in order to embody (seal) the prayer since this is one of the holy names of the Creator (just like the priests and the people were saying in The Temple in Yom Kippur after each time The Holy Name was heard). This last line is pronounced silently except on Yom Kippur.



Click here to download/print the prayer-meditation of the Ana BeKhoah

 

How to use the Ana BeKho’aḥ:

The Zohar explains that the Ana BeKho’aḥ helps us to elevate to the spiritual world and, as we recite the words, angels come to take us to higher dimensions. The words of the Ana BeKho’aḥ can be seen as what activates the wings of the angels. There are 7 angels each with 6 wings. Each pair of letters corresponds to a pair of wings that elevates us. Therefore we say the words in each verse in pairs.

There are a few levels of using this powerful prayer:

The simplest level is to read the words of the prayer. After completing each verse, contemplate, for a while (without pronouncing), on the 6 letter acrostics of that verse. Focus on your desire to elevate your consciousness beyond the limits of reason, logic and emotion. As is known, the use of logic and emotion that brought us to a certain level can only strengthen its hold on us in this reality. Our desire, every day, is to rise over the logic and emotions of yesterday and reinvent ourselves. This goal can be achieved, according to the Kabbalists, when we invest time and energy in our spiritual work.  This, first of all, begins with thoughts of unconditional love; that is the necessary condition to connect to the endless light, boundless wealth, wisdom and unity that emanates from the Creator. When we do our job as humans, we can return the universe to the state that the Creator created it – perfection and harmony. Therefore it is worthwhile to begin the day with the prayer Ana BeKho’aḥ, and to use it whenever we encounter a frightening situation of confusion, chaos or woe. Even without meditation, when time does not permit, just concentrating on the letters is beneficial.

A higher level is to say the the prayer slowly, stopping after each verse of the Ana BeKho’aḥ and with intention (saying it with all your heart and soul), at the same time looking at the letter combinations according to what was written above. We concentrate on the letter combination and imagine the white light of the creator flowing through the letters filling our life with light, perfection and balance. There is no limit to the time of the prayer and each of the permutations. Everything is according to need.

At a more complex level, we add to the previous Kavanot the permutations of two letters per each month according to Sefer Yetsira (The Book of Formation) written by Abraham the Patriarch. In order to do that, use the chart below, find the month (according to the Hebrew calendar, and concentrate on the two letters of the month after completing the contemplation over the verse that rules the planet of that month. Imagine and visualize the flow of abundance coming through the two letters of that month and visualize how this flow solves your challenges and elevate you above the obstacles gracefully. Then you can use your imagination to clean (purify) and to illuminate the areas in your life that you need to transform or fix, elevating your thoughts, instincts and aspirations.

The days of the week are ruled, each by the corresponding verse, 1-7, Sunday – Shabbat

Month

SignLetterPlanetLetterLettersLine

Tevet

Capricorn

עSaturnבעב

אבג יתץ

Shevat

AquariusצSaturnבצבאבג יתץ

Kislev

SagittarusסJupiterגסגקרע שטן

Adar

PiscesקJupiterגקגקרע שטן

Nisan

AriesהMarsדדהנגד יכש

Ḥeshvan

ScorpioנMarsדדננגד יכשAvLeoטSunככט

בטר צתג

IyarTaurusוVenusפפו

חקב טנע

TishreiLibraלVenusפפל

חקב טנע

SivanGeminiזMercuryררז

יגל פזק

ElulVirgoיMercuryררי

יגל פזק

TammuzCancerחMoonתחת

שקו צית

The Prayer Ana BeKho’aḥ and the Jewish Prayer Book – The Siddur

For generations the prayer of Ana BeKho’aḥ was inside the regular order of the prayers all over the Jewish world. It is found in the Morning Prayer in the Korbanot (morning offerings), in the Bedtime Shema, in Kabbalat Shabbat (Friday night welcoming of The Shabbat Service) before Lekha Dodi.

Shema Yisrael and Ana BeKho’aḥ

Because of the enormous importance of the ‘Name of 42’ as a powerful tool to transcend above the limits of the physical world of illusion and logic, it can be found encoded in every important Jewish prayer. For example, the first paragraph of the Shema Yisrael (Deuteronomy 6:5-9) contains 42 words and each word corresponds to one of the 42 letters of the ‘Name of 42’. There are excellent prayer books where this name of 42 can be found in the words of the verses in the Shema prayer.

The Amidah (The Silent Prayer or Shemoneh Esreh)

Another example is the prayer the Shemoneh Esreh also known as the Amidah, which is the second most important prayer after the Shema. The first blessing contains 42 words according to the Sefer Ha Zohar and according to the wisdom of Kabbalah; each word corresponds to one of the letters of the ‘Name of 42’ in order. In some prayer books this is not the case because of errors and omissions in printing during hundreds of years and previously, during centuries that the books used to be copied by hand.

The Kadish and Ana BeKho’aḥ

Another important prayer in the prayer book is the Kadish, one of its central sentences is the important verse comprised of the words: VeYisthabaḥ, VeYitpa’ar, VeYitromam, VeYitnaseh, VeYithadar, VeYit’aleh, VeYit’halal. These 7 words have each six letters (in Hebrew) – 42 letters. Each one of the 7 words begins with the letter Vav that has the value of 6 (each Hebrew letter is being used also as a number), 7X6=42.

For further study on this prayer, meditations and kavanot please enter the University of Live Kabbalah.

The Ana BeKho’aḥ and the ‘Name of 42’ in art, charms and jewelry

Because of the profound importance of the Ana BeKho’aḥ as a prayer tool especially in times of trouble, the ‘Name of 42’ has been central to designs in many historical Jewish artworks. This theme is woven into the dominant theme of hanging pictures on the walls of Synagogues in Jewish communities throughout the entire world. Almost all synagogues possess art like this on their walls, in North Africa and Europe, especially on the wall facing Jerusalem.

This theme repeats itself in the art of jewelry created in various Jewish communities, east and west, and is also standard in many charms created with these combinations. A display of these works can be found in the Perfect World Museum.

The Ana BeKho’aḥ in the original Hebrew with transliteration

Planet            Signs

חסד Hesed

אָנָּא בְכֹחַ. גְּדֻלַּת יְמִינֶךָ. תַּתִּיר צְרוּרָה:                                             אבג יתץ

Saturn ב   Capricorn  ע Aquarius צ    Ana BeKho’aḥ. Gedulat Yeminekha. Tatir Tserura

גבורה Gevura

קַבֵּל רִנַּת. עַמֶּךָ שַֹגְּבֵנוּ. טַהֲרֵנוּ נוֹרָא:                                              קרע שטן

Jupiter ג   Sagittarius  ס Pisces ק    Kabel Rinat. Amekha Sageveinu. Tahareinu Nora

Tiferetתפארת

נָא גִבּור. דּוֹרְשֵׁי יִחוּדֶךָ. כְּבָבַת שָׁמְרֵם:                                            נגד יכש

Mars ד   Aries  ה Scorpio נ   Na Gibor. Doreshei Yihudekha. Kevavat Shomrem

נצח  Netsah

בָּרְכֵם טַהֲרֵם. רַחֲמֵי צִדְקָתֶךָ. תָּמִיד גָּמְלֵם:                                 בטר צתג

Sun כ   Leo  ט   Barekhem Taharem. Rahamei Tsidkatekha. Tamid Gomlem

הוד Hod

חֲסִין קָדוֹשׁ. בְּרֹב טוּבְךָ. נַהֵל עֲדָתֶךָ:                                        חקב טנע

Venus פ   Taurus  ו Libra ל    Hasin Kadosh. Berov Tuvekha. Nahel Adatekha

יסוד  Yesod

יָחִיד גֵּאֶה. לְעַמְּךָ פְנֵה. זוֹכְרֵי קְדֻשָּׁתֶךָ:                                         יגל פזק

Mercury ר   Gemini  ז Virgo י      Yahid Ge’eh, Le’amekha Fene. Zokherei Kedushatekha

מלכות  Malkhut

שַׁוְעָתֵנוּ קַבֵּל. וּשְׁמַע צַעֲקָתֵנוּ. יוֹדֵעַ תַּעֲלֻמוֹת:              שקו צית

Moon ת   Cancer  ח     Shav’ateinu Kabel. Ushema Tsa’akateinu. Yode’a Ta’alumot

(Silently) בָּרוּךְ שֵׁם כְּבוד מַלְכוּתו לְעולָם וָעֶד:

Barukh Shem Kevod Malkhuto Le’olam Va’ed

[omniatlas]

NEW MAP: Europe 280: Proculus and Bonosus (late 280) https://buff.ly/32MMiXX Following his victories over the Germanic tribes, Probus headed east to confront the Persians. However, as he approached Syria in 280, news of renewed unrest in the west forced him to turn back. This time two usurpers, Proculus and Bonosus, had risen up in Gaul. It’s unclear as to whether or not the two were aligned; either way, Probus defeated them both by 281. #thirdcentury #ancientrome #3rdcentury #europe #europeanhistory #gaul #franks #goths #ancientgaul #historicalmaps #historie #historisch #historyclass #historydegree #historyinthemaking #historylovers #germania #map #mapping #maps #roman #romancivilwar #romancivilwars #romanempire #romanhistory #romans #romanemperor #caesar #spqr #newmap (at Lugdunum) https://www.instagram.com/p/COARDn-A5lD/?igshid=85qzx0x4s1e2

[bardo1129]

#pakistan #buddah #3rdcentury #tvwriting #writing #screenwriting #amwriting #scriptnotes #gratitudefornyc (at The Beacon Theatre) https://www.instagram.com/p/CBCP_T-JJLD/?igshid=19mnfz446u27i

[greenjaydeep]

The ixth #ashokanedict #sopara #maharastra #3rdcentury BCE #motog825gshot (at Prince Of Wales Museum) https://www.instagram.com/p/CpndbOQPNKi/?igshid=NGJjMDIxMWI=

[streets2020]

The Archaeological Site of Baelo Claudia. 🤩😷. • • • #baeloclaudia #archaeology #romans #3rdcentury #cadiz #bolonia #garum #museum #spectacular #amazing #bnwphotography #bnw_greatshots #bnw (at Conjunto Arqueológico de Baelo Claudia) https://www.instagram.com/p/CUsOUIUI3S9/?utm_medium=tumblr

[sterlingvanderwerker]

#ancientcoin #sterlingsilver #roman #follis #bronze #3rdcentury coin makes a great piece of jewelry the #purists in the pin business don’t like us making ##wearables #toobad we love rese #ancientcoins #royaldiademjewelers silver and #electrum #diamonds (at Royal Diadem Jewelers) https://www.instagram.com/p/CLVwAYQF2sE/?igshid=1xi5dtzve6zv9

[weehughie]

What have the Romans ever done for us... • • #whathavetheromanseverdoneforus #roman #romanwall #romanwalls #3rdcentury #citywalls #winchester #romanbuilding #romanengland #romanwinchester #history #romanengineering #montypython #lifeofbrian #montypythonlifeofbrian #roads #aqueduct #sanitation #education #irrigation #medicine #wine #bath #publicbath #peace #freshwater #health #publichealth #publicorder #reg (at Winchester, Hampshire)

[jeannenewhall]

#ikutashrine #kobe #orange #orangeandblack #shintoshrine #oldshrine #3rdcentury #tourstartstomorrow (at Kobe Sannomiya Ikuta Shrine) https://www.instagram.com/p/B49rL7_FsSw/?igshid=129n3s3yafe4n

[whencyclopedia]

The Ancient Synagogue in Israel & the Diaspora

A unique and fundamental aspect of ancient Judean society in both Israel and the Diaspora, the ancient synagogue represents an inclusive, localized form of worship that did not crystallize until the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE. In antiquity, there was a variety of terms that represented the structure, although some of these were not exclusive to the synagogue and may refer to something else, such as a temple. These terms include proseuchē, meaning "prayer house" or "prayer hall"; synagoge, meaning "a gathering place"; hagios topos, meaning "holy place"; qahal, meaning "assembly"; and bet kneset or bet ha-kneset, meaning "the house of gathering". The oldest term, proseuchē, originated in 3rd century BCE Hellenistic Egypt and clearly identifies a key characteristic of the structure: prayer. Although Torah reading set the synagogue apart from other public buildings or places of worship, much like the Temple before it, the Torah was not the only defining feature of the synagogue. Other distinctive traits included the activities that took place within them as well as the art and architecture of the structures themselves.

The Role of the Ancient Synagogue

Inscriptional and literary evidence suggests that judicial proceedings, archives, treasuries, prayers, public fasts, communal meals, and lodging for traveling Judeans were all associated with the ancient synagogue. The public reading and teaching of the Torah took precedence over all else by providing the liturgical activity that set the synagogue apart, but the synagogue was much more than a religious institution and must be considered as distinctly different from its predecessor, the Temple.

Following the destruction of the Second Temple and the rise of Rabbinic Judaism, a more democratic form of worship began to take root, as well as concepts such as urbanization and institutionalization, which spread throughout the Roman, and later Byzantine, Empire. With the end of the Second Temple period came the end of the practice of sacrifice, and so the reading of the Torah filled the void. As a result, the Ark of Scrolls and the Torah shrine developed, eventually emerging as the focal point of the synagogue, representing a symbol of survival and preservation. Nearly every ancient synagogue in the land of Israel yields traces and fragments of a Torah shrine, either in the form of a raised platform as a base for the aedicula, a niche, or an apse. This evidence demonstrates the significance of the Torah shrine as one of the few consistent features within the ancient synagogue. Yet the appearance of the Torah shrine was not the only emergent trait accompanying the rise of Rabbinic Judaism. Unlike the exclusivity of priestly-mediated ritual attributed to the Temple, the participants in the ancient synagogue were involved in the performance and conducting of ceremonies, reciting prayers, and reading from the Torah. A new participatory nature of worship was developing during this period, and it is preserved through the architectural remains.

As the rabbinic class rose in power, criteria that may be deemed "non-religious" began to fall under the control of the rabbis, and therefore, the "religious" domain. In terms of legal matters, Tannaitic cases may relate to settlements for divorce/widowhood, damages for public shaming, deeds dating on the Sabbath, and so on. Despite the fact that other venues were available for resolving legal matters, the rabbinic judges served as an alternate, and seemingly popular, venue. Generally, rabbinic legal activity revolved around property and family issues, which occasionally intersected with ritual law such as in Deut. 5-10 and halîsâ, a ceremony concerning the obligation of a man to marry his brother's childless widow. Quite simply, aside from the reading and studying of the Torah, the separation of religious and non-religious functions is not as clear as one may assume in terms of the activities performed in the ancient synagogue. Whether separate or not, both religious and non-religious activities attributed to the synagogue originated in response to communal requirements, differing in distribution throughout the ancient world with the exception of the study of the Torah, around which the synagogue's ultimate purpose revolved.

As a result of the Torah's dominance in synagogue performance, it seems only reasonable that it would become a popular motif with the rise of Jewish art in late antiquity, and in fact, the Torah Ark would become just that. Yet the Torah's dominance would be expressed by other means as well, such as with the development of the Torah shrine as the focal point and physical statement of Judean religious and historical lineage. Beyond the Torah shrine, however, the ancient synagogue would come to develop additional features and characteristics that reflected communal needs and practices, all of which are evident in archaeological remains.

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[jeannereames]

do you know what the typical training was for Pages (and adults in the military too ig)? :o Aside from serving the king

Training for the Macedonian Army

We know shockingly little about the “mundane details” of daily life at Alexander’s court, much less Philip’s court, nor do we know much about the training of their soldiers. Our sources aren’t interested in telling us.

(I just—yesterday--submitted a chapter on Alexander’s court for the new Brill’s Companion to Alexander the Great, so I’ve been looking at this stuff quite closely of late.)

A few things we do know: Philip was much tougher in training his men than southern Greek armies. Macedonians trained, and fought, year-round, not for just a month or so in summer. Greek cities had armies largely made up of citizen soldiers. In short, they were drafted and had to supply their own equipment, but the rest of the year, they had “real jobs” (the bulk in farming). These citizen soldiers usually took a slave with them, when they went to war, to see to their stuff. If they were wealthy enough to own a horse (cavalry) they had a groom and a slave (maybe two slaves).

By contrast, Macedonian troops carried most of their gear themselves. Philip allowed only one slave per 10 men. Cavalry got their grooms. (Cavalry were the old, traditional Macedonian army, and like s. Greek armies, not inclined to give up their amenities.) Punishment for infractions of duty or orders appears to have been harsh too, but we mostly guess based on a few stories that have come down to us, which may have been recalled because they were unusual. Due to the presence of indentured farmers in Macedonia, landowners could be freed from work on their own property, which is why Philip could keep them year-round. They didn’t own a lot of land, unlike the cavalry, but enough. (Again, this is one of those things we have to guess about without virtually any details.) We have no idea where the army lived while in Pella—no doubt barracks, but WHERE? The cavalry, at least the richest, likely had townhouses. (Thus, for instance, Hephaistion’s family has a townhouse, but he avoids it when he first runs away to Pella. As a Page, he’s put in the dormitory.)

Pages, or King’s Boys, would have trained similarly. They also had duties that amounted to slaves’s work: cleaning up after the king, helping him dress, holding his horse, serving his food, guarding him (outside the tent) while he slept. But how many were on duty at any one time, or how many there were period…who knows? We can make some guesses (see Carney article below). Again, we don’t know jack about their living arrangements, but we can assume they lived in dormitories/barracks of some sort, perhaps right on the acropolis, but maybe further out.

So why do we know so little?

It has to do with the way ancient Greeks (and later Romans) approached history. Herodotos (5th century) began with a question (Why did Greece and Persia go to war?), as did Thucydides (Why did Athens and Sparta go to war?). Xenophon (4th century) continued Thucydides’s story of the war, but added other writings, including (most famously) his own experiences in Persia. Theopompus (4th century) took on the rise of Philip (we don’t have that anymore, only fragments).

There were some “essay” type writings, as well. Xenophon writes on how to train horses, and cavalry commanders, and how to train up your wife too, while he’s at it. Marsyas (late 4th/early 3rdcentury), who went to school with Alexander, wrote a 10-book history of Macedonia, et al. Like Theopompus, it survives only in fragments.

(A “fragment” is when another, surviving author says, “So and so said in their history….” We get that a lot in “collections” like Athenaeus’s Supper Party or the various essays in Plutarch’s Moralia, or Aelian’s Varia Historia. But these are usually bits out of context, so we typically have no idea where they fit in the larger, original work—or how accurately they were copied!)

By the 3rd and 2nd century BCE, we see writers taking on larger chunks of history, like Phylarchus (fragments only), and Polybius, who traced the rise of Rome. Originally Polybius wrote something like 40 books, of which we still have intact only about 5, and pieces of others. This begins a new interest in “world histories” which looked at multiple events in various places, happening around the same time. Thus, Diodoros (we have a lot of it) and Posidonius (missing) followed Polybius and Phylarchus.

But these are all narratives. The focus is on people and events. What little we hear about things we’d label “social history” is tucked in the corners.

It’s not until the Roman imperial era that we start to see military handbooks. Some of these do tell what various military leaders did. Of interest for Philip and Alexander is Polyaenus, who, although a 3rdcentury AD author, happened to be Macedonian. But his work is still largely focused on people (and events), and he divides up his books by people/generals/kings. How to win battles. Hence these books tend to get called “tactica.”

So that’s why it’s really hard to say much. We guess a lot, based on what we do know, or similar examples.

There are, however, three sources you probably want to consult. One of those is Waldemar Heckel’s revised edition of The Marshals of Alexander’s Empire (2016), the second half that deals with offices and military arrangements. I may not always agree with Waldemar’s assessment of personalities, but the man has a mind like a steel trap for details. It lets him take random minutia from various places to build into a coherent picture of Alexander’s army, and how it ran. In addition to this, Graham Wrightson just recently published Combined Arms Warfare in Ancient Greece. Graham is very familiar with those tactical manuals I mentioned and uses them (plus regular histories) to talk about how armies worked, including (a little) training.

Finally, Beth Carney published two articles of import for the Pages/King’s Boys: “The Role of the Basilikoi Paides at the Argead Court” and “Elite Education and High Culture in Macedonia.” The former is in the collection I edited with Tim Howe in honor of Gene Borza, Macedonian Legacies. When Regina Pub. died, we put it on Amazon for pretty much cost (c.$12), with any proceeds going to the subvention fund for the Association of Ancient Historians (e.g., it helps young scholars travel to annual meetings). The latter is available in Crossroads of History, Heckel and Tritle, eds. Also Regina Pub., but as it’s now out of print, it’s expensive to lay hands on. Like Marshals and Combined Arms, it’s something to request via ILL (interlibrary loan) from your local library.

That said, both Carney articles are also available—with afterwards—in her collection King and Court in Ancient Macedonia. But again, you probably want to borrow it, not buy it (unless sitting on a lot of cash).

[omniatlas]

NEW MAP: Europe 283: Carus’ Persian campaign (July 283) https://buff.ly/3e5hPeg In late 282 Probus was assassinated and succeeded by Carus. Learning that the Persians were in civil war, Carus rushed east with his army, placing his son Carinus in charge of the West. Carus’ invasion of Persia proved to be a great success—that is, until he fell ill and was apparently struck dead by lightning in the summer of 283. #thirdcentury #3rdcentury #ancientrome #carta #europe #europeanhistory #historia #histories #historybuff #historygeek #historyteacher #instahistory #map #mapa #maps #roman #romancivilwar #romancivilwars #romanempire #romanhistory #romans #sasanian #sasanid #persianempire #ancientpersia #lightningstrikes #romanmilitary #teachinghistory #welovehistory #newmap (at Ctesiphon) https://www.instagram.com/p/COTkJt0AYNF/?igshid=1sz5tdqymf6mn

[bardo1129]

I come from a long line of #strengheria that dates back #thousands of years before #christ this #figure found in the #louvre is #typical of the #practice #curses #hands #bound #target #3rdcentury #terracotta #witchcraft #strengheria #witches and some of us are #male #writing #tvwriting #screenwriting #nycgratitude (at New York, New York) https://www.instagram.com/p/BnfNzDtn5Sg/?utm_source=ig_tumblr_share&igshid=19stchx2vw62c

[rajasthantourism]

Places to visit in Barmer

Located in the west of Rajasthan, Barmer is a beautiful city in the Thar Desert with various fascinating archaeological sites and temples to visit. If you are passionate about photography, then you must visit Barmer once as it represents India’s incredible cultural heritage in the most stunning manner. The best time to experience the beauty of Barmer is in monsoons.

Barmer is known for its folk music and dance, and people of Barmer participate in some of the world’s biggest music festivals.  The Thar Festival organizes here every year in the month of March, which showcases the local tradition through various cultural events. The fest lasts for three days. Music and dance communities like Gair dancers and Manganiars&Langasare generally in the spotlight during this event.

Barmer, a city which is rich in various forms of craftlike carving, pottery, embroidery work, Ajrak prints, blocking printing, etc., has a lot of interesting attractions to explore. Some of these are: -

Kiradu Temple

One can visit the KiraduTemple to view remarkable temple structures and exquisite artwork on the temple. You need to travel 35 km from Barmer to reach this temple which is known for its Solanki style of architecture dedicated to Lord Shiva. There are various ghost stories associated with this temple on the basis of which this temple is considered haunted. You can know more about these stories and the truth behind it when you visit this place in person.

Nakoda Jain Temple

Located 10 km away from the city of Balotra, Nakoda Jain Temple is a very famous religious site which was built in 3rdcentury AD. This temple has witnessed many renovations as it was invaded and looted by Alamshah. The main idol of this temple is a black stone statue of the 23rd Tirthankara (a Jain saint), Parshvanth. Common people of this area strongly believe that lord Parshvanthfulfils sincere wishes of people.

Barmer Fort (BarmerGarh)

Barmer Fort was built by RawatBhima in 1552 on a hillock. The best time to visit Barmer Fort is in the months from October to March. Also known as BarmerGarh; it is surrounded by temples on all sides. The main entrance of Barmer Fort is made in the north direction and safety burgs are made in both eastern and western directions. You can also visit temples of Jogmaya Devi (GarhMandir) and Nagnechi Mata temple which is located near the fort.

Chintamani Temple

ChintamaniParasnath Jain Temple, also known as 'ShriGodisaParshwanathBhagwankaMandir', is dedicated to Lord Parasvanath. Located on the west side of the city, Chintamani Temple is easy to reach. It was constructed in the 12th century and is known for its a magnificent sculpture, rich inlay interiors made with glass, and spectacular ornamental paintings.

 Devka Sun Temple

Built during the 12th or 13th century, DevkaSun Temple is dedicated to the Sun God. It is located in Devka, which is about 60 km from Barmer. An example of incredible architecture,this place also holds the ruins of two other temples that house the stone carvings of Lord Ganesha.

Juna Fort Temple

This temple is located at Juna, also known as Old Barmer, which now stands as ruins of past glory and old heritage. Located25 km away from Barmer, Junais famous for Juna Fort Temple which was built in the 12th or 13th century. You can visit this place if you love hills. You can also visit a small lake here.

SafedAkhra

Located very close to Barmer, SafedAkhra is a garden which is built within the SidheshwarMahadevTemple complex. You can see a huge idol of Lord Shiva in padmasan position inside the temple. SafedAkhra is substantial in terms of size, and also provides temporary accommodation to the pilgrims. This park is maintained by members of a committee who also guide and help pilgrims coming from various parts of the country. Pilgrims visit this place with a strong belief that all their wishes and dreams will come true if they attend the evening aarti with a pure mind.

 Mahabar Sand Dunes

Mahabar Sand Dunes is a delightful destination if you are planning to visit deserts. It is also one of the cleanest deserts in India. Many movies, documentaries, and other promotional videos have been shot here. MahabarSand Dunes are a few kilometres away from Barmer city. Here, you can explore camel as well as desert safaris. When you visit, make sure you don’t miss the sunset or sunrise views in the late evenings and early mornings.

The splendour of these places is sure to paint a more vivid picture of Barmer in your mind. It’s the rustic and majestic side of nature and architecture that every traveller must experience!

[maestroegypttours]

Petra Trips from Sharm El Sheikh

Experience Petra from sharm el sheikh And enjoy Jordan sightseeing such as Petra , fall in love with its stunning scenery, amazing historical sights, delicious food and chaotic cities Such petra Petra is more than just an archaeological site, it’s a sprawling city which was once home to 30,000 people with variety of amazing sightseeing Petra is a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site and was named one of the New 7 Wonders of the World.

Petra is a famous archaeological site in Jordan's southwestern desert. Dating to around 300 B.C., it was the capital of the Nabatean Kingdom. it contains tombs and temples carved into pink sandstone cliffs, earning its nickname, the "Rose City." The site is considered significant by historians and archeologists alike because of its beautiful rock-cut architecture and innovative water management system.

one of our  tours from sharm el sheikh 

                               Petra Trips from Sharm El Sheikh

Overview:

Petra Trips from Sharm El Sheikh by Maestro Online Travel, explore the red city of Petra from Sharm El Sheikh and be ready for the ultimate entertainment during your Day trip to Petra from Sharm El Sheikh. Sharm El Sheikh Excursions have any type of trips to Petra from Sharm El Sheikh either by ferryboat or flight from Sharm El Sheikh to Amman

Itinerary:

Petra Tour From Sharm By Ferryboat, Maestro Online Travel representative will pick you up from your hotel in Sharm by our modern air-conditioned comfortable vehicle, he would be standing in front of the reception of the hotel with our long experienced friendly tour guide welcoming you early in the morning. You will ride for around 250 kilometers from Sharm El Sheikh to Taba in the North. From Taba, you would ride the ferryboat to the Aqaba port in Jordon after around an hour. After around two hours of driving, you will explore the wonders of the Dead Sea, the lowest place on the globe, and the saltiest sea in the whole entire world. The water of the Dead Sea is extremely rich in minerals and they have fascinating curative effects. Named so because of the fact that there is no fish or any other creature that can live under its water, the Dead Sea is an amazing place to spend a couple of hours. We proceed towards Petra, the town established by the Nabataeans in the 3rdcentury BC. The city is featured with its pink rock-cut constructions and its ancient history.

The most impressive monument in Petra is the treasury that consists of two floors. This building was never in fact a treasury, but it was the mausoleum of one of Nabataeans kings. Other remarkable buildings in Petra include the Monastery, the Roman-style theatre, and many more remarkable constructions. Lunch will be served during your trip, after the end of the day; you will be transferred back to Sharm El Sheikh following the same route you took to arrive in Jordan after spending a splendid day in the monuments of Petra.

Included:

·         Pick up service from your hotel in Sharm & return

·         All transfers by air-conditioned vehicle

·         Ferry boat tickets Taba - Aqaba - Taba

·         Entrance fees to Petra

·         English speaking guide in Petra

·         Lunch at a local restaurant in Petra

·         Horse ride for 15 min in Petra Tour

·         Entry visa to Jordan

·         All service charges & taxes

Excluded:

·         Personal expenses.

·         Any extras not mentioned.

·         Tipping.

[atsoukalidis]

Theatrical masks, figurines, lekythos and phallus from the cult of Dionysus 4th – 3rdcenturies BCE from the collection of the archaeological museum of Chalkis - Arethousa