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biomedgrid · 3 years

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Biomed Grid | Therapeutic Properties of Honey

Abstract

Introduction: Honey is a product of high biological value and helps both the growth and strengthening of susceptible individuals. The history of honey begins in ancient times, where for many centuries, it was the only known sweetener. Even today, honey remains a key component of Mediterranean cuisine because of its high nutritional value.

Purpose: The purpose of this review is to inspect closely and thoroughly the usefulness of the nutritional value of honey and the healing properties of it.

Methodology: Regarding the methodology followed, a review was conducted through articles and books related to the subject using PubMed, Google Scholar and Scopus electronic databases with key words: honey, nutritional value of honey, therapeutic use of honey.

Results: The biological value of honey is determined by a series of beneficial effects that it causes to the human organism. Its antimicrobial action prevents the growth of bacteria and other pathogens. Its antiseptic properties help clean, disinfect or heal wounds and burns. Honey besides having a lower caloric value than sugar, it also has many other beneficial properties

Conclusions: In recent years, more and more people are turning to the consumption of natural products, including honey. The beneficial effect of honey on human health is widespread and its use as a food in our daily diet, as a product of superior caloric value, is increasing.

Introduction

Honey is a product of high biological value and helps both the growth and strengthening of susceptible individuals. In addition, nature gives us honey ready for consumption [1]. The history of honey begins in ancient times, where for many centuries, it was the only known sweetener. Homer in the Odyssey praises honey and its healing properties, while in the Iliad he refers to the preparation of an appetizer for Nestor, the king of Pylos, which consists of onions, bread, cheese and honey. Later, we come across texts written by Hippocrates, Dr. Galinos, Demokritos and Aristotle referring to the beneficial properties of honey for health and longevity [2].

Pythagoras and his followers used honey daily on their diet because they believed honey had antiseptic and medicinal properties. References are also made for the use of honey in the embalming of the dead. Honey continued to be widely used in Byzantium, while the bee was used as a symbol of Ephesus printed in coins at the time of its peak. Even today, honey remains a key component of Mediterranean cuisine because of its high nutritional value [3]. Beekeeping and honey production are one of the most important sectors of primary production, both in the European Union and in Greece. In Greece, beekeeping is quite widespread either as an exclusive or as a second job. It is a branch of rural economics, which contributes significantly to the income of both agricultural and urban families [4].

Honey is ripe and ready for consumption when it has a water content of 14-17%. Immediately after ripening, honey is transferred into smaller containers to be available on the market for consumption or be stored. In Greece, the glass jar is preferred for the storage of honey because glass is a neutral material and does not react chemically with honey to alter its quality. Simultaneously, the consumer can distinguish the color, crystallization and purity of the honey [5,6]. Honey from antiquity to the 18th century was the only confectionery for the man. The outlook that it has generally a beneficial effect on human health was and it is still widespread throughout the world. It is used as a tonic because of the glucose it contains, which is readily digested and metabolized by our body. It has a beneficial effect on our heart, liver and digestive system. Also, it has good antibacterial activity due to the presence of hydrogen peroxide (oxygenase) and high sugar concentration [7]. The purpose of this review is to inspect closely and thoroughly the usefulness of the nutritional value of honey and the healing properties of it. Regarding the methodology followed, a review was conducted through articles and books related to the subject using PubMed, Google Scholar and Scopus electronic databases with key words: honey, nutritional value of honey, therapeutic use of honey.

Talking About Honey

In accordance with Community law, honey is the natural sweetness, a sweet viscous food substance produced by Apis mellifera bees. They produce honey from the sugary secretions of plants - plant and floral nectar - or from excretions of other insects, such as honeydew or by regurgitation, enzymatic activity and water evaporation. Bees convert them into honey by mixing them with specific substances of their own body. Afterwards, they deposit, dehydrate, store honey in honeycombs, which are wax structures to mature (Table 1) [8].

Therefore, school health surveys in both countries have some limitations, which should be kept in mind. Mean height of those in high school in the earlier period of our survey, the 1960s in particular, may not represent the same age groups in the entire population, because the rate of enrollment in senior high school was 58% in 1960, as compared to 92% in 1975 in Japan, whereas the corresponding rate was as low as 20.3% in 1970 but sharply rose to 79.4% in 1990 in S. Korea and 43.2% in 1976 and 72.9% in 1991, respectively in Taiwan [7]. compiles changes in mean height of boys from elementary school 1st graders to high school 3rd graders in Japan, S. Korea and Taiwan from 1960 to 2010 by 5-year intervals. The data are based on the school health surveys mentioned above. In order to smooth the annual fluctuations*5 in the original data (available to the author), simple 3 year moving averages are provided in Table 1(e.g., 1970 = average (1969:1971)). Despite the statistical likelihood that mean height of high school students in S. Korea and Taiwan as well in the earlier years of our investigation, specifically the 1960s and 1970s, could be slightly greater than the national averages then, Japanese school boys at age 17 years were 2-3 cm taller than their S. Korean and Taiwanese peers in the 1960s through the 1970s. It is estimated that the Taiwanese male high school students were slightly taller in mean height than their Korean peers in the 1960s through the 1980s, (refer to Table 1).

Table 1:

Honey is a complex natural product of world agricultural production derived from the bee. As a natural product, any honey, even if it comes from the same hive, may be different in terms of the ingredients contained or the quantities that are detected in the final product [9]. Plant and geographical origin and honey maturing conditions are the main factors responsible for the large number of honey ingredients and, consequently, for the physicochemical properties of the finished product. Thus, honey can contain several substances from 14 different types of ingredients: sugars, organic acids, water, proteins, amino acids, vitamins, minerals and trace elements, enzymes, flavonoids, furan derivatives, volatile aromatics, alkaloids, colloids [10,11].

Produced honey can be divided into two major categories [12]:

a. Flower honey, produced from the nectar of the flowers, mainly thyme, orange, cotton, sunflower, heather, chestnut and

b. Honey from honeydew, produced by plant exudates or insect-ridden plants. This category includes honey from pine, fir and other forest plants.

The study of honey components, in conjunction with information on its botanical and geographical origins but also other parameters, can explain the interactions that take place and shape its physicochemical characteristics. The physical properties of honey are a series of characteristic properties that honey acquires when it is mature, which can be modified during its storage [13,14]. Some of them are color, aroma and flavor, crystallization, fermentation, hygroscopicity, viscosity and density, its antimicrobial action, and so on. The physicochemical characteristics of honey are directly related to its organoleptic characteristics (flavor, color, aroma, fluidity) and the way the beekeeper or the consumer must manage honey after harvesting [15]. The composition and physicochemical characteristics of honey are among the most important parameters that help define the identity of a honey. The better we know the composition and the physicochemical properties of a honey, the easier it is to draw conclusions about its organoleptic characteristics, its microscopic characteristics and its exact origin, and put it in the right qualitative group.

Regarding the factors that may affect the color of honey, they are [9]:

a. The plant origin: The color of the honey depends on its plant origin; in other words, the plant and the part of the plant from which the bees were fed. As a rule, flower honey is lighter in color than honeydew honey which are dark-colored and black in some cases [16].

b. Moisture of honey: Honey harvested before sealing the cells well, before it matures, has a darker color than the typical color it would have after full maturation [17].

c. Crystallization of honey: Honey usually becomes lighter in color than normal due to the natural crystallization process [4].

d. Storage time and conditions: Stored honey becomes darker in color as a result of chemical changes in its ingredients. Changes in the color of the product are mainly affected by its content of fructose, colloids, copper, iron, its acidity and moisture content. The speed at which the color of the stored product is affected depends on the content of these chemical characteristics [18,19].

e. Beekeeping: The beekeeper causes honey to become darker when [4]:

I. He places the honeycombs in the cells, which were used earlier in the honeybee nest.

II. He does not often renew honeycombs and he extract honey from old black honeycombs.

III. He extracts the honey from the honeybee nest.

IV. He does not use diaphragms for the queen.

f. Filtering: Good filtration immediately after harvesting helps to preserve the original color of honey [17].

g. Heating of the honey θέρμανση του μελιού: Heating the product in any way affects, among other things, its color. The effect is insensitive to low temperatures and significant to high temperatures [3].

Calorie Value

Honey has an average of 304 kcal/100g. Its calorific value is directly related to its botanical origin (Table 1) and it is determined by various factors, such as the sugar content and their individual proportions, the moisture content, the presence of high molecular compounds etc. [7].

Table 2: Calorie content of honey.

Nutritional and Therapeutic Value of Honey

The biological value of honey is determined by a series of beneficial effects that it causes to the human organism, actions that are due to its individual components [18]:

a. Honey sugars are more easily assimilated by the human body. Phosphates contained in honey help to make good use of glucose. Also, vitamins contained in honey, although at a low concentration, ensure the absorption and utilization of sugars [1].

b. It contains significant amounts of minerals and trace elements, essential for humans. The content varies greatly among the different types of honey. Indeed, at least for zinc, it has been proven that honey is found in the most readily assimilable form of the human organism and in quantities capable of greatly contributing to the satisfaction of daily needs of a man. In general, potassium, selenium and chromium [20,21].

c. Honey contains calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, vitamins B1, B2 and enzymes. These components of the honey give him irresistible medical properties [2].

d. Honey is tonic as it increases heart rate. Also, it reduces stomach ulcer problems, relieves insomnia, constipation, sore throats, and generally contributes to good functioning of the body [10].

e. Honey consumption helps in quicker recovery of health in cases of anemia due to the iron it contains. It is often used in cases of intoxication because it helps to accelerate the metabolism of alcohol by finally exempting the organism from this condition [1].

Its antimicrobial action prevents the growth of bacteria and other pathogens. Its antiseptic properties help clean, disinfect or heal wounds and burns [22]. In traditional medicine, it is used as a stimulant, tonic and antipruritic against anorexia and malaise, helps in cases of tiredness, coughing and colds, and finally makes sleep easy if consumed shortly before it.

The antibacterial action of honey is perhaps the only one of its biological properties, which is not questioned. The mechanism of its action in wound cleaning and healing or disinfecting of infected mucous membranes is somewhat easy to understand. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and gluconic acid contained in honey play a primary role for this purpose. Nectar has a neutral reaction [23]. As it matures and becomes honey, the bee adds the enzyme glucose oxidase, which converts it into gluconic acid, while hydrogen peroxide is formed as a byproduct. Honey thus acquires an acidic reaction to the extent that most bacteria cannot grow. H2O2 not only inhibits the growth of bacteria but also kills them [1,21]. A second milder antibacterial property is manifested by the high concentration of honey sugars, which causes the lymph to exit from a trauma. Bacteria are being drawn out together with the lymph, when exposed to gluconic acid and H2O2 action. The importance of H2O2 in honey is that it is continually being produced into honey and it is much more drastic the moment produced [19].

The bacteriostatic action of honey owed to glucose oxidation products is lost when the honey is warmed up. The only antibacterial effect is the one that can cause all solutions with a high sugar concentration (high osmosis) [10]. Finally, honey consumers should be aware that honey, if consumed in large quantities, is fattening. Honey contains an average of 3300 (range 3000-3800) calories per kilogram, while sugar 4000 calories. However, honey besides having a lower caloric value than sugar, it also has many other beneficial properties, as we mentioned earlier. In conclusion, eating up to 100 grams of honey every day has beneficial properties for the human body, without many calories [20,21].

Conclusion

In recent years, more and more people are turning to the consumption of natural products, including honey. People tend to consume natural food again, both by their desire to seek a substitute for drugs in their various health conditions, and by trying to reduce the risks of frequent side effects of synthetic drugs.

The beneficial effect of honey on human health is widespread and its use as a food in our daily diet, as a product of superior caloric value, is increasing. It is a fact which is justified by the properties of honey.

Read More About this Article: https://biomedgrid.com/fulltext/volume4/therapeutic-properties-of-honey.000858.php

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thepurplehummingbirdonetsy · 5 years

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geohoneylovers · 5 years

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POLYFLORAL HONEY

Beechwood Honey

It's popularly known as Honeydew honey and mainly produced in New Zealand's South Island. It has extraordinary aroma & comes from the sap produced by aphids on the bark of beechwood trees giving distinct stature in the honey index. Beechwood honey is fondly mixed into smoothies, sauces, pancakes, and fruits like a sweet drizzle. This honey is a good supplement for improving the body's immunity and digestive system.

Berry Honey

Berry Honey is a rich source of anthocyanin flavonoids having good anti-inflammatory properties. It's considered good for eyes and even helps in fighting against colon cancer.

Black Bee Honey

This is absolute form of raw honey- unpasteurized & unblended. Majorly found in Exmoor National Park has a smoky aroma and becomes runny on heating

Canola Honey (Brassica napus)

Canola is an ideal habitat and food source for honeybees: Canola flowers produce high amounts of nectar and this nectar has a good sugar profile for honey production. The large amounts of pollen offer a good nutritional balance of amino acids, protein and fats.

Canola honey is one of the most delicate in flavour, crystalize easily & have low acid levels. Being prepared from species of rapeseed, holding 80% of Canadian honey sales.

Golden Honey

Velvety-Smooth honey having a deep flavour with a blend of clover and wildflower honey varieties. It has a sweet taste entwined with delicate floral undertones.

Jamun Honey (Syzygium cumini)

Jamun Honey is sourced from bees that feed and forage primarily on Indian blackberry commonly known as JAMUN Jamun. It is collected from the south Karnataka region and is harvested in August when the Jamun flowers blossoms. It is dark amber in color and comparatively less sweet than other honey.

Jamun (Syzygium cumini) honey is famous for its antihypoxic activity. A specific dose of this honey can be topically applied to cure the deadly Fournier gangrene.

Since it has high osmotic pressure and viscosity, it prevents microbial growth and promotes wound healing when applied to the affected areas.

Jamun honey is renowned for anti-hypoxic activity. A specific dose of this honey can be topically applied to cure the deadly gangrene. Since it has high osmotic pressure and viscosity, it helps in microbial growth and promotes wound healing when applied to the affected areas.

Kashmir Honey

Gently nourishes skin with natural single flora of Kashmir Honey. It has all beneficial components which help in boosting immunity.

Chestnut Honey (Castanea sativa)

Of the common species of Chestnut trees, the Sweet Chestnut (Castanea sativa) grown mainly in Europe produces honey, and the Allegheny Chinkapin (C. pumila) grown in Eastern USA produces a strong and bitter honey.

The chestnut tree belongs to the same family as beeches and oaks. For thousands of years the chestnut was a primary source of nutrition in the mountainous areas of the Mediterranean where grains did not grow well. The primary honey producer, the sweet chestnut tree (Castanea sativa) is common in Europe where it was introduced from Sardis (in what is now Turkey) thousands of years ago, hence the name Sardinian Nut, now known simply as the chestnut…not to be confused with Sardinian honey, so called because it is produced on the Italian island of Sardinia.

It possesses a unique aroma and some of its varietals are reported to taste bitter. This amber-colour honey is mildly sweet and its low Glycemic Index makes it honey suitable for diabetics.

Maple Honey (Acer macrophyllum)

The western honey bee or European honey bee (Apis mellifera) is the most common of the 7–12 species of honey bees worldwide. The genus name Apis is Latin for "bee", and mellifera is the Latin for "honey-bearing", referring to the species' production of honey.

Has the aroma of maple trees in bloom, with a sweet almost medicinal scent to it. Maple Blossom Honey is only available during the earliest days of spring from the blossoms of big leaf maple trees.

Cotton Honey (Gossypium hirsutum)

Cotton honey first sounded like a joke to me. I mean, cotton is for clothes, for good quality clothes, breathable and soft.

The only image I had in mind of the plant named cotton, was from an old movie where black slaves were gathering white balls of fluffy cotton from a huge field. I remember the contrast between their black ebony hands and the white balls.

I never imagined honey can be produced from those plants, because in my mind there were no flowers attached. But then, I thought the same when I first heard of pine honey. Pines don’t have flowers and yet honey can be produced from them.

Made from the visiting the flavours of cotton plants, it doesn't taste light cotton, but rather has a complex flavour with both sweetness and tartness, unique and delicious.

Neem Honey (Azadirachtaindica)

Neem honey is a popular Ayurvedic treatment and can be commonly found in India where Neem trees (Azadirachtaindica) are common. It is used to lower high blood pressure, diabetes, skin problems, allergies, dental illnesses, and throat infections. Highly valued in Ayurveda for its medicinal properties, Neem honey is as appreciated as Maharishi honey. It is known to be anti-inflammatory, anti-coughing and antiseptic. Folk medicine uses it in lowering high blood pressure and to treat diabetes (!), skin problems, dental diseases, infected throat, and allergies.

Medicinally valued Neem honey is a Bitter-tasting variant mainly produced in warm tropical countries like India. It’s an Ayurveda medicine for lowering high blood pressure, treating diabetes, skin problems, dental diseases, infected throat, and allergies.

Pine Tree Honey (çam balı)

Pine honey Turkish: çam balı is a type of honeydew honey. It is a sweet and spicy honey, with some woody notes, a resinous fragrance and dark amber color. It is a common breakfast dish in Turkey, where it is drizzled over yoghurt and eaten with bread.

Pine honey is an unusual honey because it is not produced entirely by honey bees. It is produced by bees that collect honeydew (sugary secretions) from a scale insect species called Marchalinahellenica, which lives on the sap of certain pine trees. The marchalinahellenica can be found on the Turkish Pine (Pinus brutia), as well as the Aleppo Pine (Pinus halepensis), Austrian Pine (Pinus nigra), Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Stone Pine (Pinus pinea).

Pine honey is produced in eastern Mediterranean Pinus brutia forests. Turkey produces 92% of the world’s pine honey. Muğla Province accounts for 80% of Turkish pine honey production.

Pine Tree honey (also known as forest honey, fir honey, honeydew or tea tree honey) holds the majority of honey production in Greece. It is not particularly sweet and tastes a little bitter with a strong aroma. Relatively rich in minerals and proteins, this honey is resistant to crystallization.

Pumpkin Blossom Honey (Cucurbita)

Pumpkin honey is one of the rarest of honeys, so it is a special treat when available. It is an excellent honey for cooking, baking, canning, and wonderful for marinades, sauces, and dressings. Whip it into a tasty honey butter and you wont be disappointed. Pumpkin Honey is reminiscent of pumpkins and other squash, even having an orange cast to the color. It is wonderful for fall and winter cooking.

Pumpkin Blossom honey is dark amber-coloured having a light floral fragrance. It’s a suitable topping for dishes and desserts and tastes good when paired with savoury or spicy barbeque sauce. It also tastes great when drizzled with sweet potatoes, yoghurt, and desserts.

Rainforest Honey (Apis Dorsata)

The bees that produces this precious honey is called Apis dorsata or Giant Honey Bees, and they would only build hives on canopies of Koompassiaexcelsa, also known as Tualang tree - Hence the name Tualang honey.

Having a rich floral aroma, rainforest honey originates from rainforests of Brazil, Australia, Tasmania, Thailand, the US, etc. It is popularly used in cooking and baking and hailed as an excellent sauce ingredient, also favorite among the children & used as a breakfast jam or mixed into a honey drink

Rata Honey (Metrosiderosrobusta)

It contains live enzymes, minerals and vitamins, making it a tasty super food, perfect for displays with cheeses but also healthy and nutritious as well. Our Rata honey is sourced from the protected Rata tree found in New Zealand's National Forests.

Rata is one of several species of Rata found in New Zealand but is the one that most regularly produces a honey crop, although even this honey is sometimes in very short supply. Anyone who has seen the Rata flowering in January in the Otira Gorge west of Christchurch cannot forget the sight of this brilliant red carpet covering the mountains. This area produces the purest Rata honey, very white in colour with a subtle, distinctive flavour, mild and rich - but not sweet, almost salty, considered by many to be the best of New Zealand Honeys.

Rata honey is a light colour & buttery smooth varietal that has impressed many serious honey enthusiasts. It has a mild, subtle taste and yet very memorable, pleasantly sweet aroma. Rata honey has a relatively high glucose content. It crystallizes quickly and thus is usually processed into a cream, honey. When mixed with water, it makes an absolutely delicious, soothing tonic with a fruity hint.

Tualang Honey (Apis Dorsata)

Tualang honey (TH) is a Malaysian multifloral jungle honey. The honey is produced by the rock bee (Apis dorsata), which builds hives on branches of tall Tualang trees located mainly in the north-western region of Peninsular Malaysia.

It is claimed to contains more nutrients & minerals than Manuka Honey. Tualang Honey has one of the lowest glycemic index in honey, despite its savoury sweet taste. Eating it does not spike your blood sugar levels as much as other honey. It has half the GI of table sugar and even lower than white bread, making it the perfect, super healthy alternative for table sugar and can be easily incorporated into any diet or recipe. Tualang Honey contains the highest amount of antioxidants & anti-inflammatory agents in honey. It improves cardiovascular health, stimulates fast wound healing, reduces scarring and is extremely effective against persistent coughs & sore throats or other viral-borne diseases.

The tualang honey is a multifloral jungle honey, produced by an Asian type of bee called Apis dorsata, in nests hanging from the high branches of the tualang trees.

Referred as the "champagne of honeys" or "Queen of honey", this honey is produced in the Southeastern U.S. swamps. It is usually light golden amber with a mild, distinctive taste. Tualang honey is one of the sweetest honey varieties because of its high fructose content and it hardly granulates.

Tulsi Honey (Ocimumtenuiflorum)

Tulsi Honey is prepared by infusing Krishna tulsi leaves with unprocessed honey. Honey an elixir, when mixed with Tulsi, works out wonders for your body and mind. It strengthens the immune system and reduces stress and induces sleep when consumes at night with hot water. Good for throat infection, shows best result against anti-bacterial effect. Reduce cough.

Good for throat infection, reduce cough and shows the best result against the anti-bacterial effect.

Tupelo Flower Honey

Tupelo honey is a premium honey produced in northwest Florida. It is heavy-bodied and is usually light golden amber with a greenish cast and has a mild, distinctive taste. Because of the high fructose content in Tupelo honey, its granulates very slowly.

Tupelo Honey (Nyssa)

Named as the "champagne of honeys", "Queen of honey", "Southern Gold", Tupelo honey is a premium honey produced in the Southeastern U.S. swamps. It is usually light golden amber with a faint greenish glow, and has a mild, distinctive taste. Because of its high fructose content, Tupelo honey is one of the sweetest honey varieties and it hardly granulates. More details in: Tupelo Honey - Queen of Honey.

Tupelo Honey or the “Southern Gold”, as it is popularly known as, is produced in the Southeastern U.S. swamps. It is usually light golden or amber in colour with a faint greenish glow and a mild & distinctive taste. Tupelo honey is one of the sweetest honey varieties courtesy the high fructose content and its ability of not granulating like most other types of Honey.

Wildflower Honey

Wildflower is often described as polyfloral honey from miscellaneous and undefined flower sources. Its colour varies from very light to dark and flavour range from light and fruity to tangy and rich, depending on the mix from the different seasonal wildflowers.

Visit www.geohoney.com to get more details!

#wildflower honey #polyfloral honey

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we-all-horny-here · 4 months

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They look so nice together, I'm sure nothing bad will ever happen between them ahah :)

Comms Ko-fi

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bluemoonlightgiveaways · 8 years

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Honey /ˈhʌni/ is a sugary food substance produced and stored by certain social hymenopteran insects.[1] It is produced from the sugary secretions of plants or insects, such as floral nectar or aphid honeydew, through regurgitation, enzymatic activity, and water evaporation.[1][2] The variety of honey produced by honey bees (the genus Apis) is the most well-known, due to its worldwide commercial production and human consumption.[3]

Are you hitting on me?

#Anonymous

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iranexportbiz · 7 years

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Honey

Iranian Honey

Honey is a sweet, viscous food substance produced by bees and some related insects. Bees produce honey from the sugary secretions of plants (floral nectar) or other insects (aphid honeydew) through regurgitation, enzymatic activity, and water evaporation. Honey is stored in wax structures called honeycombs.The variety of honey produced by honey bees (the genus Apis) is the…

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magusbotanicus-blog · 7 years

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Factsheet 01/2018

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Alford, D. V. (2011) Plant Pests. London: Harper Collins Publishers.

Alford, D.V. (2012) Pests of Ornamental Trees, Shrubs and Flowers: Colour Handbook. 2nd edn. Boca Raton: Taylor and Francis Group LLC

Ali, M. A., Wieczorek, K., Kreil, D. P. and Bohlmann, H. (2014) ´The Beet Cyst Nematode Heterodera schachtii Modulates the Expression of WRKY Transcription Factors in Syncytia to Favour Its Development in Arabidopsis Roots´, Plos, Online. Available at: http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0102360 [Accessed 14.01.2018]

The Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board (2014) Encyclopaedia of pests and natural enemies in field crops. Available at : https://cereals.ahdb.org.uk/media/524972/g62-encyclopaedia-of-pests-and-natural-enemies-in-field-crops.pdf [Accessed 26.01.2018]  The Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board (2017) Violet Root Rot. Available at: https://potatoes.ahdb.org.uk/media-gallery/detail/13214/2663 [Accessed 14.01.2018]

Bayer (2011) Expert Guide: Sugar Beet. Available at: https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:sGwkAJ9723gJ:https://cropscience.bayer.co.uk/api/DocumentDownload/Download/%3Fid%3D100000856+&cd=11&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=uk&client=safari [Accessed 16.01.2018]

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Belchim (2017): Difure Pro. Available at: http://www.belchim.co.uk/pdf/Label/DIFUREPRO_Label.pdf [Accessed 16.01.2018]

Barnea, O., Mustata, M., Mustata, G. and Simon, E. (2005) The parasitoid complex which control the Aphis Fabae Scop. colonies installed on different crop species and spontaneous plants. Available at: http://www.nhm.ac.uk/resources/research-curation/projects/chalcidoids/pdf_x/barneamumu2005b.pdf [Accessed 14.01.2018]

Betaseed (2017) Beet Cyst Nematode. Available at: http://www.betaseed.com/uk/tools/diseases_pests/details/article/beet_cyst_nematode_bcn.html [Accessed 15.01.2018]

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Figures and Plates:

Plate 1 : Helicobasidium purpupreum on Roots. Available at: https://www.google.co.uk/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&ved=0ahUKEwikqbyFp_3YAhXpKMAKHdOtC9AQjBwIBA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fephytia.inra.fr%2Ffr%2FI%2F32360%2FRhizoctonia-crocorum2&psig=AOvVaw0b2bV4gUPDcakoqsyE5aJy&ust=1517318629076524 [Accessed 09.01.2018]

Plate 2: Helicobasidium purpureum. Available at: :http://www.entofito.com/images/bfi_thumb/sugar-beet-n9rx5a1815wqfmacmmj225cu0mbtftxldxp415v1yk.jpg [Accessed 04.01.2018]

Plate 3: Cercospora beticola present on Beta ssp. Available at: https://c1.staticflickr.com/1/616/23410139696_673f0d20e9_b.jpg [Accessed 12.01.2018]

Plate 4: Cercospora beticula lesions in detail. Available at: https://www.sesvanderhave.com/RO/sites/sesvanderhave.com.RO/files/galleries/B_3_3_Cercospora%20beticola.jpg [Accessed 22.01.2018]

Plate 5: Heterodea schachtii appearance. Available at: https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/publications/crops/sugar-beet-cyst-nematode/figure-2-white-lemon-s-opt.jpeg [Accessed 12.02.2018]

Plate 6: Heterodea schachtii on fibrous roots (above). Available at: https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/sites/gateway/files/bcn%20figure%202.jpg [Accessed 11.01.2018]

Plate 7: Damage by Heterodea schachtii (below). Available at: https://www.kws-uk.com/global/show_picture.asp?id=aaaaaaaaaaafcea [Accessed 11.01.2018]

Plate 8: Aphis fabae. Available at: http://influentialpoints.com/Gallery/Aphis_fabae_Black_Bean_aphid.htm [Accessed 22.01.2018]

Plate 9: Colony attend by ants. Available at: http://www.brickfieldspark.org/images/jpgs/aphidblackbean2260.jpg [Accessed 22.01.2018]

Figure 1: Conrad (2018) All Year Guide

#magusbotanicus factsheet0118

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