#Cellular Immunity

[stripejournals]

Innovations in Vaccine Design and Immunology

Innovations in Vaccine Design and Immunology: A Comprehensive Review

Introduction

Vaccination has been one of the most integral elements of public health for so many years, which greatly reduced the burden of infectious diseases. Rapid progress in science and technology has brought along innovative changes in the designs of vaccines, changing immunology. This article focuses on recent developments that were brought forward through contributions from microbiology, virology, and cell biology.

Vaccine Innovations: Development and Review Articles

The last few review articles on vaccine development have indicated that over the past decade there was a trend away from the conventional vaccines toward next-generation vaccines. From the live-attenuated and inactivated vaccines it led to novel approaches such as recombinant subunit vaccines, mRNA vaccines, and viral vector vaccines. Such breakthroughs in genetic engineering and immunological understanding have been driving these advances.

Key innovations include:

mRNA Vaccines This employs synthetic messenger RNA, able to instruct cells to produce antigens that induce the proper immune response.

Nanoparticle-based vaccines: nanoparticles with application for improved delivery and antigens stabilizing to attain better immune responses.

Personalized Vaccines: Vaccines designed according to the genetic identity of an individual to tackle diseases.

Make your text human

Contributions from Microbiology case reports and publications

Vaccine design requires a significant input from microbiology, because the knowledge of pathogenic mechanisms of microorganisms helps to identify the targets for the vaccine. The recent microbiology case reports have shed light on pathogen-host interactions, antigenic variability, and antibiotic resistance, which are useful in vaccine strategy.

Staphylococcus aureus vaccine development: Recent studies involving the virulence factors and immune evasion of S. aureus lead to promising antigens for vaccine development. 

Tuberculosis Research: Advances in understanding Mycobacterium tuberculosis pathogenesis have motivated the development of enhanced vaccines such as M72/AS01E.

Virology Research Articles and Blogs

Rapid progress has been achieved in vaccine development through research in virology regarding the newly emerging and re-emerging viral threats. Publications and blogs abound regarding breakthroughs against viruses, like SARS-CoV-2, HIV, and influenza.

Notable findings include:

COVID-19 Vaccines: The mRNA vaccines (Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna) are the epitome of integrating virology research with vaccine innovation through rapid development and deployment.

HIV VACCINE CHALLENGESDespite having passed decades since its identification, the highly mutating nature of HIV still poses a challenge and thus demands the development of broadly neutralizing antibodies.

Universal Influenza Vaccines: Epitopes of the virus are conserved and targeted and vaccines could be designed that provides long-term immunity against most strains of influenza.

Immunology Publications and Blogs

Immunology research underpins mechanisms through which vaccines provide protection. This has made publications and blogs available, including those on topics like immune memory, optimization of adjuvants, and T-cell activation.

Highlights include:

New adjuvants are AS03 and MF59. They act in the modulation of innate as well as adaptive immune response for better vaccine efficacy.

T-Cell-Based Vaccines: An understanding of the cytotoxic T-lymphocyte response has driven vaccines for intracellular infections, including malaria and certain malignancies.

Immune evasion mechanisms: Informed vaccine design based on the mechanism of immune avoidance by pathogen

Cell Biology Journals: Contributions to Vaccine Design

Cell biology journals have offered critical insights pertaining to the cellular processes, whose importance informs vaccine development. Particular areas related 

to antigen processing and presentation, signal transduction, and the cell response to vaccination have emerged more frequently.

For example:

Dendritic Cells as Vaccine Targets: Exploiting dendritic cells to present antigens directly to T-cells has been a focus of cancer vaccine research.

Cellular Uptake Mechanisms: Knowing how cells internalize nanoparticles will help design effective vaccine delivery systems.

Conclusion

The synergy between microbiology, virology, immunology, and cell biology has catalysed innovations in vaccine design. The integration of interdisciplinary research continues to enhance our ability to combat infectious diseases, paving the way for personalized and universally effective vaccines. As highlighted in review articles, newsletters, blogs, and research publications, the future of vaccinology is poised for unprecedented advancements.

References

A comprehensive list of microbiology, virology, and immunology publications, blogs, and newsletters would be appended here to support the findings discussed.

[moondove330]

do you MIND

[neuroandhemo]

platelet

one of my ideas for its design

[creepyscritches]

At least twice a week since July I've had people thanking me for my neuroendocrine cancer education and telling me how often they use the resources I built them :') idk imposter syndrome is ever present and in healthcare you can even have thoughts of "Man, am I spending too much time educating/researching on poorly understood cancers?"

I'm still struggling to decide on format, but I'm currently compiling my research and resources to make a self-guided cancer education resource for my team. I really enjoy my job rn but I think focused cancer education would be nice to springboard into later in life once I finish learning about the inner guts of the ACA. I'm finally healthy enough to consider higher education, but the catch is my employer insurance is the only reason I can get my medical care...and leaving for school to be able to focus more officially on cancer education means I'd lose that medical care security :(

[er-cryptid]

Cell-Mediated Immunity

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[dr-afsaeed]

Adhesion Molecules in Cellular Migration, Inflammation and Disease

Adhesion Molecules in Cellular Migration, Inflammation and Disease Adhesion molecules are integral membrane proteins that play critical roles in cellular interactions and communication. They are essential in facilitating cellular migration, particularly in the context of inflammation, immune responses, and various pathological conditions. These molecules help maintain the structural integrity of…

[blueoaknx]

Mitochondria Combat Chronic Inflammation

Introduction

Chronic inflammation is a pathophysiological condition linked to numerous diseases, including obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders. Mitochondria, the cellular powerhouses, are pivotal not only for ATP production but also for regulating cellular metabolism, redox balance, and apoptosis. Recent studies reveal that mitochondria play a crucial role in modulating inflammatory responses, and their dysfunction is often implicated in chronic inflammatory states. This article explores the intricate mechanisms by which mitochondria influence chronic inflammation and their potential as therapeutic targets.

Mitochondrial Structure and Function

Mitochondria possess a double-membrane structure that includes:

Outer Membrane: Contains porins that allow the passage of small molecules.

Inner Membrane: Rich in cardiolipin and contains the electron transport chain (ETC) complexes crucial for oxidative phosphorylation.

Matrix: Contains enzymes for the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), and ribosomes.

These structural features enable mitochondria to perform several essential functions, including ATP synthesis, calcium buffering, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) regulation.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Chronic Inflammation

Mitochondrial dysfunction is characterized by reduced ATP production, increased ROS generation, and impaired metabolic signaling. Key contributors to mitochondrial dysfunction include:

Oxidative Stress: Excessive ROS can damage mitochondrial components, leading to a vicious cycle of increased inflammation.

Aging: Aging is associated with mitochondrial dysfunction, contributing to the onset of chronic inflammatory diseases.

Environmental Toxins: Exposure to pollutants and toxins can induce mitochondrial damage.

Mitochondrial dysfunction is implicated in the activation of pro-inflammatory pathways, including:

NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation: Mitochondrial ROS and mtDNA release can activate the NLRP3 inflammasome, leading to the maturation and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β and IL-18.

NF-κB Pathway: Mitochondrial stress can activate the NF-κB signaling pathway, promoting the expression of pro-inflammatory genes.

Mechanisms by Which Mitochondria Combat Chronic Inflammation

Energy Homeostasis and Immune Cell Function

Mitochondria are essential for the bioenergetic demands of immune cells, particularly during inflammatory responses. Immune cells like macrophages and T-cells switch from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis during activation, a process known as the Warburg effect. Mitochondria facilitate this metabolic flexibility by:

Providing substrates for glycolysis and subsequent oxidative phosphorylation.

Regulating ATP levels to support energy-intensive processes, such as cytokine production and phagocytosis.

Regulation of ROS and Redox Signaling

Mitochondria generate ROS as byproducts of the ETC. While excessive ROS can induce oxidative stress, physiological levels of ROS act as signaling molecules that modulate immune responses:

ROS can activate redox-sensitive transcription factors such as Nrf2, promoting the expression of antioxidant genes that mitigate oxidative stress.

Controlled ROS production aids in the differentiation of T-helper cells and enhances the immune response.

Apoptosis and Clearance of Damaged Cells

Mitochondria are central to the intrinsic apoptotic pathway, releasing cytochrome c and other pro-apoptotic factors that initiate caspase cascades. Effective apoptosis is crucial for:

Removing damaged or dysfunctional cells that could perpetuate inflammation.

Promoting an anti-inflammatory environment through the clearance of dead cells and debris, thereby preventing secondary necrosis and the associated inflammatory response.

Mitophagy: Mitochondrial Quality Control

Mitophagy is the selective autophagic degradation of damaged mitochondria, crucial for maintaining mitochondrial quality. Key mechanisms involved in mitophagy include:

PINK1/Parkin Pathway: PINK1 accumulates on damaged mitochondria, recruiting Parkin, which ubiquitinates mitochondrial proteins, signaling for degradation by the autophagy machinery.

Enhanced mitophagy reduces the release of pro-inflammatory factors and maintains cellular homeostasis.

Mitochondrial Biogenesis and Adaptation

Mitochondrial biogenesis is regulated by PGC-1α and other transcription factors. Increasing mitochondrial biogenesis can enhance cellular energy capacity and improve metabolic flexibility, which is particularly beneficial in inflammation. Strategies to promote mitochondrial biogenesis include:

Exercise: Physical activity enhances PGC-1α expression and mitochondrial function.

Nutritional Interventions: Certain bioactive compounds, like resveratrol and curcumin, have been shown to stimulate mitochondrial biogenesis.

Therapeutic Implications

Given their critical role in modulating inflammation, mitochondria represent promising therapeutic targets. Potential strategies include:

Nutraceuticals: Compounds like Coenzyme Q10 and α-lipoic acid may enhance mitochondrial function and reduce oxidative stress.

Exercise Interventions: Regular physical activity can improve mitochondrial health and reduce chronic inflammation.

Mitochondrial-targeted Therapies: Developing drugs that specifically target mitochondrial pathways could provide new treatment avenues for inflammatory diseases.

Conclusion

Mitochondria are integral to the regulation of chronic inflammation through their roles in energy metabolism, ROS management, apoptosis, mitophagy, and biogenesis. Understanding the complex interplay between mitochondrial function and inflammatory processes is essential for developing effective therapeutic strategies. By targeting mitochondrial health, we can potentially mitigate chronic inflammation and its associated diseases, paving the way for innovative approaches to improve public health outcomes. Continued research into mitochondrial biology will undoubtedly reveal further insights into their role in inflammation and disease.

[dgspeaks]

How Sun Chlorella Keeps Me Fabulous, Fueled, and Fierce!

How Sun Chlorella Keeps Me Fabulous, Fueled, and Fierce!

Rise and shine, fabulous people! Ever wondered how I keep my glow, stay sharp, and maintain my energy while juggling all of life’s little adventures? Well, let me take you on a journey through a typical day in my life and introduce you to the secret weapons behind my energy and fabulousness—Sun Chlorella’s range of products! These babies keep me going from sunrise to sunset, and trust me, once…

[airises]

What are induced pluripotent stem cells, and how are they different from embryonic stem cells?

What are induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)? Reprogrammed adult cells: iPSCs are created in the lab by taking adult cells (often skin or blood cells) and genetically reprogramming them back to an immature, embryo-like state. Pluripotency: Like embryonic stem cells, iPSCs are pluripotent. This means they have the exceptional potential to develop into almost any type of cell in the body. Key…

[theambitiouswoman]

⭐Vitamin Cheat Sheet⭐

Vitamin A: Vision, immune system, skin health.

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine): Energy metabolism, nerve function.

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin): Energy production, skin health.

Vitamin B3 (Niacin): Cellular energy production, skin health.

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid): Metabolism, hormone production.

Vitamin B6: Brain function, mood regulation.

Vitamin B7 (Biotin): Healthy hair, skin, and nails.

Vitamin B9 (Folate): Cell division, DNA synthesis.

Vitamin B12: Nervous system, red blood cells.

Vitamin C: Immune system, collagen synthesis.

Vitamin D: Bone health, immune function.

Vitamin E: Antioxidant, skin health.

Vitamin K: Blood clotting, bone health.

Calcium: Bone and teeth health, muscle function.

Iron: Oxygen transport, energy production.

Magnesium: Nerve function, muscle relaxation.

Zinc: Immune system, wound healing.

Potassium: Fluid balance, nerve function.

Iodine: Thyroid function, metabolism.

Selenium: Antioxidant, thyroid health.

[kyrianclawraith]

Ah, but given his dating/hookup history I'd say that the important word in that sentence is "today". He's probably going to take a bit to decompress and get used to the situation, but then come back swinging his shot right back at them. I mean John's kinda doing the same thing as Danny here, since he's an old man himself. (He's just not stopping his healing factor from producing the needed telomerase to stay in his prime like Danny is.)

Danny is the Crazy Old Man™️ of Gotham

So, the events of Danny Phantom happened decades ago

Like, Phantom Planet was one of the first instances of Superheroes in HISTORY. Early 1900's, just the Fentons were Insanely Ahead of their Time!

Danny is still a Halfa, but has allowed himself to grow old and live his best life before fully dying so he can accept his Throne in the Infinite Realms. He decides to experience Life in the fullest way possible, partying, drinking, making long lasting friendships that shape the lives of everybody he meets, all that!

Eventually, Danny's Party Life leads him to Gotham. And this place is just amazing!

It has all the comforts of Home, with so much more! He can Party! He can Fight! He can do anything he wants and nobody bats an eye, because a crazy old man getting into a fistfight in the middle of the road is just another Tuesday for Gotham!

He decides to spend the rest of his Mortal Life there. And this is still Early On in the DC Timeline, like, Batman Year 1 is happening Right Now.

He hangs around, befriends the local Homeless Population, and mostly just has the time of his Life! And he takes up the stereotypical Homeless Old Man look because why fight it? That's literally what he's going for!

He also unintentionally sets up a bunch of future events

He teaches Kid!Jason on his to steal Tires as repayment for driving off some muggers with a Baseball Bat (honestly he was looking forward to being mugged, it's a new experience after all)

He pulls Kid!Tim into an Alley after Tim gets caught out at night and gets chased by some Punks. He hides Tim behind a Dumpster and tricks the Punks into mugging him instead (Yay! He finally got mugged!)

He becomes kind of well known as the Old Man who wants to experience everything before he dies. He says as much too, not like he really has a reason to hide it. He just tells people "I want to live my life to the fullest, it don't matter if I live 10 more years or 10 more minutes, I'm gonna experience every second of it!"

He once walked into a Cloud of Fear Gas to see what it was like. Later he said it was a 6/10. "Not the worst thing I've had injected into my body!" He says with no Context.

He traded places with a Hostage during an active Crime Scene because he wanted to know what it's like.

He was once dared to take Batmans Utility Belt by another Homeless Guy as a joke, so he walked up to Batman later that night in full view of everybody else and just asked for his Belt. He gives up after a few minutes, and one guy asked "Why not fight him for it? It's an experience after all.". Danny replys "Nah, I've fought Vigilantes before. It was fun though, gotta say!"

...

This got away from me, but all this to say: Imagine the Bat Families Reaction when they find out "Crazy Old Danny" is PHANTOM. You know, THE FIRST SUPERHERO!

I imagine Constantine is having a stroll though Gotham after finishing up some business with Bruce, and just bumps into a homeless guy by accident.

Later that night:

Batman: Constantine, Why are you calling? Is it to do with the-

Constantine: Why the fuck is there a Homeless God in your City?

Batman: Wait wha-

...

Or imagine they know before Constantine meets him, and it goes instead like this

Constantine: Why the fuck is there a Homeless God in your City?!

Batman: You mean Old Man Danny? He's just a homeless guy? What do you mean?

Constantine: I swear on what's left of my Soul, that is a God.

Batman, a little shit: I don't think so, I would know (fully knows)

[er-cryptid]

Selectins

Molecule family

Cell-surface adhesion molecules

Found on leukocytes and endothelium

Bind to sugars on glycoproteins

Patreon

[bedupolker]

how does one get immune to scorpion venom

be grasshopper mouse

evolve sensory neurons which reject the toxins and prevent pain signals.[6] Researchers now know that the grasshopper mouse barely notices the intensifying sting due to a mutation in the cellular pathway that controls their pain response. Compared to the normal house mouse, the grasshopper mouse has one more amino acid in the protein making up the sodium channel Na+ nav1.8. This change prevents the mouse from processing Na+ currents when injected with the scorpion's venom, which blocks action potential propagation and induces analgesia.[7] The Grasshopper Mouse's mutation may potentially yield better analgesics for humans as well, through further research.[5]